Editor’s Note: The following is a paper based on a presentation given at NASF SUR/FIN 2023, in Cleveland, Ohio on June 7, 2023, in Session 7, Automotive.  A pdf of this article can be accessed and printed HERE; the complete Powerpoint presentation is available by clicking HERE.

ABSTRACT

With the acceleration of the automotive industry’s move toward electric vehicles, manufacturers and suppliers need to adapt to new substrates and finishes to meet evolving OEM needs.  At the same time, when choosing coatings for fasteners, OEM materials and coatings engineers must take into consideration a variety of performance factors when identifying a coating to specify.  This paper covers various finishes, new trends and emerging technologies available to meet OEM and fastener supplier needs, as well as those finishes growing in demand for the electric vehicle market.  We review common coating options for fasteners and important questions to consider about performance factors such as corrosion resistance requirements, durability, temperature, torque tension needs and more.  A review of the galvanic series of various metals in seawater is provided, covering the nobility and electrode potential of each, and the relationship to galvanic corrosion.  Focusing on corrosion resistance and durability, we examine the zinc and zinc alloy processes available, keying in heavily on zinc-nickel and its increased usage and operational and performance advantages.  An overview of trivalent passivate finish options is also discussed as well as information on the importance of torque tension modifiers.

1.0 Introduction

With the acceleration of the automotive industry’s move toward electric vehicles, manufacturers and suppliers need to adapt to new substrates and finishes to meet evolving OEM needs.  At the same time, when choosing coatings for fasteners, OEM materials and coatings engineers must take into consideration a variety of performance factors when identifying a coating to specify.  This paper covers various finishes, new trends and emerging technologies available to meet OEM and fastener supplier needs, as well as those finishes growing in demand for the electric vehicle market.

2.0 Coating options, choice and performance

There are many questions involved in choosing the right finish for a given fastener application.  Among them are:

• Corrosion – What environment will the fastener see and what is the expected service life?
• Safety – What is the hardness and material condition of the fastener?
• Durability – Will the fastener be subject to abrasion?
• Temperature – What temperature will the fastener be exposed to?
• Electronics – Will the fastener be used in electronic applications?
• Appearance – Color and gloss needed?
• Size of fastener – What is the size and thread?
• Torque/Tension – What limits are needed for application?
• Cost – What finish is needed to meet the above questions with the lowest cost?

2.1 Metallic layer

Figure 1 – Basic coating components for a fastener finish.

Figure 1 shows the basic coating components for a fastener. Considering them from the substrate up, we first have the basic metallic coating layer.  Those most commonly used are zinc, mechanical zinc, zinc-nickel, zinc flake, tin-zinc and zinc-iron.

Figure 2 – Determining corrosion potential based on the galvanic series in seawater.

An important function of the metallic coating is its relation to the substrate in terms of its potential in Volts in Galvanic Series Seawater.  As shown in Fig. 2, all the coatings above iron are sacrificial or anodic to the substrate.  All the coatings below iron are more noble or cathodic to the substrate.  Directly above iron is 12% zinc-nickel, so the difference in volts in a seawater environment is 0.1V.  Moving up to zinc in the chart, the difference is 0.31V.  It is this difference that determines the corrosion potential.  The farther apart the metals are on the chart, the more dissimilar they are, resulting in a higher potential for corrosion.  Comparing the galvanic couples of typical fastener finishes shows cadmium versus steel at 0.15V, zinc over steel at 0.31V and, depending on the composition, zinc-nickel over steel in the range of 0.5-0.15V.

Taken together, Fig. 3 compares the important properties of the six finishes considered here.

Figure 3 – Performance comparison of the most commonly used metallic coating finishes for fasteners.

2.2 Trivalent passivate / conversion coating

The trivalent passivate / conversion coating provides protection from white corrosion products and extends the hours to red basis metal corrosion.  In general, one nanometer of thickness provides one hour of protection to first white rust (FWR).  In addition, the passivate provides color to the finish, depending on the thickness:

• Clear to blue =                0 – 130 nanometers
• Iridescent =                    170 – 350 nanometers
• Black =                            50 – 250 nanometers 

The texture is generally flat, unless a sealer is used.

2.3 Sealer

The sealer provides additional salt spray performance by providing an additional layer of protection.  It can be organic, inorganic or a combination of both.  It provides gloss where needed and can provide some lubricity to the fastener.

2.4 Lubricant / torque tension

The lubricant layer provides lubricity and control of critical joint applications.  It can contain an integrated UV additive for application verification.  It can be a lubricant or a combination of a lubricant and a sealer.

3.0 Benefits of zinc-nickel

Zinc-nickel deposits have two to three times the hardness of zinc plating, which is great for scratch resistance.  When combined with resistance to heat, and increased corrosion protection, zinc-nickel is well suited to meet the increasingly demanding specifications and desire for longer-lived components to reduce warranty claims.  The zinc-nickel market is further influenced by the continued growth of the electric vehicle market due to its durability and corrosion resistance.

Zinc-nickel was introduced as a replacement for cadmium several years ago in the aerospace industry and continues to grow in usage and popularity in that industry based on its properties. In the agriculture industry, zinc-nickel was looked at in combination with high performance sealers to resist the harsh chemicals in fertilizers.  And of course, in the automotive industry we know that it has risen in popularity in its use for safety-critical components as well as high temperature, under-the-hood applications.  Beyond zinc-nickel, it should be noted that tin-zinc is also needed for electrical components, but at reduced volume.

Overall, the zinc-nickel market continues to increase.  Driven in part by the need for increased vehicle life (automotive warranties) and a subsequent demand for enhanced corrosion protection, the zinc-nickel market has outpaced demand for zinc.  From 2013 through the end of 2016, the zinc-nickel market grew 40% versus the zinc market, which grew only 2.5% over the same time period.

Within the same time frame, the acid zinc-nickel market has increased versus alkaline zinc-nickel.  Alkaline zinc-nickel originally held 93% of the zinc-nickel market in 2013 with acid zinc-nickel holding at 7%.  However, acid zinc-nickel has gained in popularity.  By 2016, it had grown to 13% of the market with alkaline zinc-nickel coming in at 87%.  The percentage of the market held by acid zinc-nickel nearly doubled in this four-year time frame as newer technologies became available and the benefits of acid zinc-nickel over alkaline in specific applications were recognized (to be covered later).

As for corrosion performance, compared with zinc alone, zinc-nickel has a phase or metallic structure difference that forms stable white corrosion products, enhancing corrosion protection.  When looking at the difference in corrosion rate in microns/year, zinc-nickel (1-2 μm/yr) can yield up to 25 times the corrosion protection of pure zinc (50 μm/yr) depending on the atmospheric conditions.

Given what is discussed here and where the industry is headed, demand for zinc-nickel and zinc-nickel alloy finishes will continue to increase in the future. Zinc-nickel is becoming more popular due to performance and a better supply base.  Analysis of trends indicates that there is new interest in alloy coatings for use in electric vehicles.  There is renewed interest in tin-zinc for automotive applications with fasteners near electronic components.

3.0 Role of zinc-nickel and tin-zinc in the electric vehicle market

As recently as five years ago, there continued to be doubt about the viability and growth of the electric vehicle market but now, that is all changing.  The road map to electric vehicles is firmly in place.  This disruptive technology change will happen faster than we might think.

One of the most relevant examples of this type of disruptive technology happened in the early 1900s (Fig. 4).  On a bright Easter morning in 1900, you could only spot one lone automobile amongst 50 horse-drawn vehicles on busy New York Street.  Just thirteen short years later, on the same street, in the same town, there was only one single horse-drawn vehicle to be found amongst all the automobiles.  Disruptive change had happened.  And it's upon us now with electric vehicles.

Figure 4 – A century-old example of disruptive technology.

3.1 EV market outlook

When we talk about electric vehicles, it is important to note that there are many different types of electric vehicles. These types of electric vehicles, as well as different technologies, are all in the running and are evolving.  In fact, some technologies may eventually supplant the technologies in vogue today. 

Figure 5 – Complexity and efficiency of various EV technologies.

Nonetheless, as of today, Fig. 5 shows several of the EV technologies, and their acronyms, vying for attention.

Of course, ICE stands for internal combustion engine, for the traditional automobiles most common today.  From there, we have the MHEV or mild hybrid electric vehicle (MHEV), the full hybrid version (HEV), the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), the EREV, which is an electric vehicle with a small ICE, and the Battery electric vehicle (BEV) with no ICE involved. In the upper right of the figure, we also have Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV), or hydrogen powered vehicles, waiting in the wings and the subject of considerable research.

Figure 6 shows the growth of electric vehicle volumes with USA OEMs in the full fiscal year of 2021 and then the first six months of 2022.  Note that for full battery electric vehicles, Tesla is projected to sell approximately double the number of cars in 2022 versus 2021.  For the mild hybrid cars (ICE with battery), there is an upward trend of these vehicles as consumers begin to make the transition.

Figure 6 – EV volumes for US OEMs: FY2021 and 2022 (first half).

Between 2021 and 2028, the OEMs are planning the launching of 87 battery electric vehicle (BEV) models in their high profit margin segments (SUVs, CUVs and PUPs).  Figure 7 shows some examples of the electric vehicles being launched in coming years. 

Figure 7 - Examples of the electric vehicles planned for launch in 2021-2028.

These models are on multiple platforms of cars, trucks, SUVs and even commercial light duty trucks.  It is important to note that, with the rapidly evolving market, these vehicle launches change frequently.  It does, however, show that the new EV launches are significant and growing.

In the chart in Fig. 8, the OEM market shares from 2019 and expected growth to 2028.  Obviously, there are many new players entering the North American market.  Some will make it, some will not, but we can see that the landscape is definitely changing from the way we knew it 10 years ago.

Figure 8 - OEM electric vehicle market shares from 2019 and expected growth to 2028.

The three Detroit OEMs (Ford, GM and Stellantis) comprise 46.6% of 2028 North American (NA) production volumes.  The three major Japanese OEMS (Toyota, Honda, and Nissan) account for 29% of the 2028 NA volumes.  The German OEMs (BMW, Daimler and VW) account for 9.3% of 2028 NA volumes.  Other Asian-based OEMs (Hyundai, Subaru, Mazda, Geely, Jianghuai and FAW) will account for 10.6% of the 2028 production volumes in North America, while Tesla accounts for 3.3%.  The new EV start-ups known today will account for 1.2% of the NA volume.  These include Rivian, Bollinger, Lucid, Lordstown, Canoo, Oshkosh, Faraday Future, Arrival, Amazon/Zoox and Karma.

3.1 Effect of EVs on metal finishing outlook
 

Figure 9 - Projected steel usage for battery electric and internal combustion vehicles.

Figure 9 shows the projected steel usage for electric vehicles. The blue area in the bar chart shows the steel usage outlook for the battery electric vehicles.  Market demand for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) will increase as battery costs continue to decline.  In addition, “carbon neutral materials” will be required to reduce total greenhouse gas emitted over the vehicle's usable life.  The orange bars represent steel usage for internal combustion engine vehicles, which shrinks considerably over time.  Nonetheless, as shown, super-imposing the ICE profile onto the BEV profile shows a slight increase in steel requirements.

An area of interest to many suppliers and finishers is what the powertrain shift between ICE and BEV will mean.  Figure 10 offers an overview of some of the components in the ICE and what the market shift to BEV will look like.  For example, the combustion engine will be replaced with a battery and charging devices.  As a result, the powertrain components will change but there will still need to be fasteners and brackets holding all these powertrain components together.

Figure 10 – Market shifts in the components used in ICE versus EVs.

The question of the fastener needs in a power system involving batteries and electrical systems basically involves the fact that the fastener may be involved in current flow.  The needs may involve a mix of metallic and non-metallic substrates.  They may be involved in weight reduction assemblies.  Most importantly, they must maintain contact resistance and conductivity over the life of the vehicle.  At present, the frontline coatings of choice that meet these needs are zinc-nickel and tin-zinc.

Referring to the data in Fig. 3, Fig. 11 reviews the coating properties and attributes of zinc-nickel and tin-zinc versus pure zinc.  It is important to note that the salt spray hours can differ drastically, depending on the passivate and sealers, but in general, better corrosion resistance is realized with the alloy coatings.  There is less risk of hydrogen embrittlement, but unfortunately, you have a higher cost for the alloy deposits.
 

Figure 11 – Performance and attributes of zinc-nickel and tin-zinc for EV applications.

Buss bars and connectors are also major components in EV vehicle systems.  Here, instead of steel, the substrate may consist of aluminum, copper or a copper alloy.  Figure 12 shows the elements of a coating system for such applications, and the coatings associated with them.  For these components, the coatings need high conductivity and contact resistance should remain as constant as possible over the life of the vehicle.

There are a number of different coating technologies but mentioned here are a few combinations.

Figure 12 – Basic coating components for a buss bar or connector finish.

A barrier layer-electrolytic nickel or possibly electroless nickel, on top of that a tin or silver layer, then finally some sort of corrosion inhibitor may be applied to keep the surface performance uniform over many years of service.  The objective here is a coating system that has good contact resistance and is stable over the vehicle life.  This is new territory for the industry and is evolving as rapidly as vehicle technology.

With the switch to battery electric vehicles, there will also be some raw material challenges not just in mining but in processing the different metals used.  Cobalt is a critical component in batteries and may come in short supply if mining and processing do not keep up with the pace of growth.  Cobalt is an anti-corrosion metal used in small amounts in modern-day zinc passivates.  Subsequently, there may be a need for cobalt-free passivates in the future from a supply/price issue.  There will also be a need for coatings and passivates for aluminum substrates and new coatings that can perform with multi-metallic substrate combinations.  Finally, it cannot be forgotten that related sustainability issues will require advances in battery reclamation technology.

In summary then, the coatings that will be needed for battery vehicles are:

• Zinc
• Zinc-nickel
• Tin-zinc
• Tin
• Silver
• Electroless nickel
• Copper 

4.0 Passivate Finish Options & Torque Tension Modifiers

4.1 Trivalent passivates

After years of research to replace carcinogenic hexavalent chromium passivates, trivalent chemistries are a reality.  Both thick and thin film chemistries are available, and the finish options are numerous, including clear, blue, black, yellow and iridescent coatings, among others. 

Black passivates are of particular interest to the OEMs.  The specifics of what they are looking for are (1) a deep black color, (2) the least amount of coating loss in reacting with the zinc-nickel metallic overlayer and (3) enhanced corrosion resistance.

To address these needs, we have developed a proprietary cobalt-free black passivate.  Figure 13 shows some performance data comparing our black passivate (b) versus a competitor’s that we felt had the best black passivate (a).  The important data here is the color  “L” number before sealer, and of course the residual nickel remaining after the passivating process.  It will be noted that the newer technology black passivates have a darker deeper black and remove less zinc-nickel layer in the process.

Figure 13 – Performance comparison of black passivates: (a) competitor technology, (b) newer proprietary cobalt-free technology.
 

4.2  Torque tension modifiers

There are new options available in the market that take advantage of newer cobalt-free technology, combined with high gloss sealers and torque tension modifiers to deliver the consistency and corrosion protection that OEMs need.  Torque tension friction coefficients are in the 0.08-0.14 range.  The complete system is shown schematically in Fig. 14, with (1) a zinc-nickel metallic layer, (2) a black cobalt-free trivalent passivate, (3) a high gloss sealer and (4) a torque tension modifier lubricant.

Figure 14 – Schematic diagram of advanced fastener coating system for OEM needs.

5.0 Summary

The automotive industry is moving rapidly toward electrification and new substrates and finishes are needed to meet the demand.

There are a variety of important factors to be considered when choosing a coating to specify.

Zinc-nickel continues to grow in popularity across the automotive, agriculture and aerospace industries.  Tin-zinc is growing in demand for the EV market. 

The electric vehicle market will drive innovation of new coatings systems and will provide the opportunity for platers to branch out with new metallic and organic coatings to grow with the market.

6.0 About the author

Mark Schario, CEF, CFS, serves as Chief Technology Officer for Columbia Chemical.  He has more than 30 years of experience in the surface finishing industry and is world renowned for his expertise on the subject of Decorative Trivalent Chromium Plating.  Mark functions as the company’s top liaison to the automotive industry, consulting with OEMs and Tier 1 suppliers worldwide.  He serves on an AIAG workgroup and is Chairman to the ASTM B08.10 Technical Subcommittee on Metallic and Inorganic Coatings, which has jurisdiction over 132 standards.  He is a member of the National Association for Surface Finishing and has earned the industry designation of CEF/Certified Electroplater-Finisher and CFS/Certified Fastener Specialist.  Mark holds an Executive MBA from Case Western Reserve University.

Introduction

Many industrial/technical journals consist of a well-rounded mixture of technical papers, practical articles about technology and how-to-do-it features, including this one, Products Finishing.  In its decades of publication, the AESF/NASF journal, Plating & Surface Finishing also endeavored to meet this need. 

Among the many features were those of the columnists, recognized experts who had expertise in certain segments of the surface finishing industry.  Contributors offered articles on decorative finishing, electronics, processes, patents and others too numerous to mention.  What follows is a sampling of columns published in P&SF over the years, which still retain information of importance even today.

Unfortunately, given the limitations of space, we left out several of the writers that were very popular back in the day, and to them we apologize.  Nonetheless, the seven columns which follow capture the flavor and value of the offerings.  A printable PDF version of this report is available by clicking HERE.

ADVICE & COUNSEL

Eductor 101

By Frank Altmayer, MSF, AESF Fellow

Originally published as F. Altmayer, Plating & Surface Finishing, 91 (1), 28 (January 2004)

Dear Advice & Counsel:

I have a very simple question. What is an eductor and how can it provide an advantage in our plating operation?  We are a captive hard chromium plating facility and we have heard about these devices from some friendly competitors, but even they are not using them.

Signed, Barely Agitated

Dear Ms. Agitated:

Eductors are devices used to amplify water flow by a Venturi effect.  Figure 2 is an illustration of an installation from one of the suppliers of these systems.  While the most common eductors are made of PVC, they also are made from a number of other materials including cast iron and stainless steel.

 Fig. 2 This illustration shows how an eductor works. (Courtesy of SERFILCO, Ltd., Northbrook, IL.)

Eductors can effectively and more uniformly agitate a process tank without producing aerosols.  Process tanks are typically equipped with a bank of eductors specifically designed to provide a uniform movement of liquid.  This uniform solution movement is accomplished without the production of undesirable aerosols.  Further, eductors can improve the quality of electroplated deposits by improving plating uniformity across racked parts on a work bar.  Eductors can eliminate or reduce the cooling effect of air blower agitation, minimize brightener breakdown caused from oxidation by air, and reduce the introduction of dust and vapor into the solution.

Additional benefits eductors may provide are:

•   More even plating distribution

•   Reduction of thermal stratification

•   Reduced air emissions

•   Reduced tendency to pit in some solutions

•   25% energy reduction in heated tanks

•   Operation at higher current densities

•   Improvement in throw/coverage

•   Broader bright range, lower brightener consumption

•   No air blower (less noise)

•   No clogged spargers producing non-uniform or absent agitation

The above sounds one-sided, but there are a few disadvantages that must be considered:

•   Eductors take up more tank space than an air sparger

•   The material of construction for the eductor must withstand the chemicals in the tank

•   An electric motor/pump is required to drive an eductor system.  With multiple systems, energy costs may increase.

•   The mechanical force of the liquid may sometimes cause parts to sway in the tank.  This can usually be worked around by the installation design.

Potential uses for eductors are:

Cleaners

Alkaline cleaners function through the use of thermal, chemical and mechanical energy.  By increasing any of these three forces, the efficiency of the cleaner is likewise increased.  By replacing recirculating pumps or air agitation with an eductor system, the level of mechanical energy applied to parts is significantly increased.

With eductors, there also is less contamination of rack superstructure and contamination of portions of parts protruding from the solution.  During my visit to your facility, you indicated that some parts were rejected due to "rundowns". This is where mist or splashes from the cleaner collect on the portion of the parts that reside out of the cleaner (parts are only partially submersed).  During subsequent plating processes, the cleaner runs down the part and causes a streak in the plated deposit.

Plating/Anodizing Processes

Hard chromium platers that have switched from air agitation to eductors to maintain tank temperature have provided me with favorable comments on the effect.  A nickel plater that replaced air agitation with an eductor system reported a dramatic reduction in air emissions and an improvement in plating speed and distribution.  Eductors may improve most any plating process that requires vigorous agitation.  An exception may be processes such as acid zinc plating, where air agitation is required to control the iron content.

Eductors may also improve anodizing quality and speed by providing a higher level of mechanical force.

Acid Pickling

The efficacy of an acid can be improved by adding agitation.  If the eductor is used to replace air agitation, less fumes and mist will be produced.

Rinsing

I have always had a poor opinion of air agitated rinses, because too often the air comes up in one corner of the tank and the rest of the tank is "dead".  Eductors provide a much more effective level of agitation and are not subject to the clogged sparger syndrome.

A word of caution: Always discuss a change in the method of agitation of any plating or anodizing process with your supplier or consultant, before investing in such a change.  At times, an eductor system may require a change in additive package (especially wetter) to avoid an undesirable change in appearance.

Frank Altmayer is a Master Surface Finisher and an AESF Fellow who is Technical Education Director of the AESF Foundation and NASF. He owned Scientific Control Laboratories (SCL) from 1986 to 2007 and has nearly 50 years of experience in metal finishing.  He began his career with SCL by signing up through an employment agency.  Altmayer was instrumental in a research project for a client that ended up revolutionizing how ECG electrodes were made.  His reward for this discovery allowed him to buy into SCL in 1992.  Since then, Frank has been a consultant and became technical education director of the AESF Foundation and NASF, where he has taught electroplating courses for over 40 years.  He contributed his column, Advise and Consent, longer than any other columnist for P&SF.

THE REAL WORLD OF CORROSION

Corrosion Testing: Natural Environments

By Richard G. Baker, CEF

Originally published as R.G. Baker, Plating & Surface Finishing, 75 (1), 16 (January 1988)

Corrosion testing.  Ah, the very words conjure up visions of extensive travel to exotic environs.  Perhaps a South Sea Island!  Wouldn't that be an ideal corrosion test site?  Well, I'm here to tell you that while South Sea Islands are unique from the standpoint of their natural beauty as well as from the aspect of corrosion, the weather may be more than you bargained for.

Every year, I used to go to a tropical island in the Pacific and I had occasion to talk about my experiences there.  After all these years, I can still remember that I could taste the salt in the air even when I was on top of a three-story building!  Consequently, I entitled my talk "The World's Largest Salt Spray Chamber."

For the purposes of corrosion testing, natural environments can be conveniently separated into industrial, marine, rural, arid or desert, and tropical.  There are also natural environments that encompass more than one type.  For example, New York City is an industrial environment that contains some marine-borne contaminants because it is close to the ocean.

The corrosion rate of a metal will vary depending on the type of environment to which it is exposed.  Table 1 shows that the rate at which zinc is attacked in two highly industrialized environments - New York City and Altoona, PA - is significantly higher than that in the other settings.  It is important to recognize that other metals may show completely different corrosion rates when tested in these same environs.

Table 1 – Effect of Environment on Zinc Corrosion

Exposure Conditions

When exposing plated or painted test panels to natural environments, the most frequent observations, as a function of time exposed, include: (1) a change in coating appearance, (2) the advent of base metal corrosion products, (3) pitting of the finish and (4) panel weight loss or gain.  In addition, when painted panels are exposed, an "X" is often scratched through the coating to the basis metal and the progress of corrosion at that intentional void is observed, again as a function of time.

Exposure to natural waters (e.g., sea water) is also used to evaluate materials from a corrosion standpoint.  Exposure may involve full, partial or periodic immersion.  Intermittent inspection permits a determination of the effect of exposure time on the metal or metal combination being tested.

There are also corrosion tests performed by burying candidate materials in various types of soil.  Yes, soil not only gets your hands dirty, it may also cause corrosion.  Depending on the type of soil and the material exposed to it, severe corrosive attack is a possibility.

Time Considerations

It should be recognized that corrosion testing in natural environments normally takes longer than in simulated settings, where accelerated tests are employed.  In addition, a single type of natural environment may vary in its "corrosivity" as a function of the time of year.  Again, considering New York City, the relative humidity is usually fairly low during the winter months but generally quite high in the summer.  Plated and other panels will therefore experience higher corrosivity rates during the humid months, in this case.

Not only is the average and maximum relative humidity likely to differ from one period of the year vs. another, but prevailing winds may come from a different direction, or the type and amount of corrosive contaminant in the environment may vary.  In addition, the relative humidity or temperature excursions between day and night can play an important role in the degree of corrosion that occurs, as can other seasonal variations.  Suffice it to say that most natural environments are rarely static and may contain a number of potentially corrosive contaminants that, in combination, may aggravate the condition of a particular test specimen.

At this point, let's return to that South Sea Island (wouldn't we all love to!).  Here, of course, we have what appears to be an ideal marine environment.  However, there may also be decaying vegetation or marine life around that could contribute additional corrosive contaminants to our idyllic island atmosphere.  While the predominant corrodant may be the salt-laden air, the presence of these other materials may change the magnitude of the corrosion that arises.

Test Setup

Static or rack corrosion tests are generally the most popular of the atmospheric exposure types.  These consist of exposing the specimen at a specific angle to the horizontal.  In addition, the specimen (or actual workpiece) is normally exposed at some designated angle with respect to magnetic north.  The positioning is largely dependent on the type of corrosion information desired and previous experience with the particular test site.

To prevent unwanted galvanic coupling with any metallic rack material or mounting hardware, the test panels or actual parts are mounted in such a way that they are electrically isolated.  Visual inspections are made periodically, and multiple specimens are frequently exposed simultaneously.  This permits the periodic removal of a specimen, which can then be evaluated more conveniently in the laboratory both visually and for any weight gain or loss data that may be needed.

Since we all have a tendency to be a little impatient, we normally want more rapid answers to our corrosion tests.  To answer this need, and as a result of the relatively long time required to run natural environmental corrosion studies, a large number and wide variety of accelerated tests have been developed.  These generally aim to produce rapid results without adversely affecting the type of corrosion product that would form in a natural environment.

Richard G. Baker was associated with the Electrochemical Research and Development Department of the Bell Telephone Laboratories for many years.  He was supervisor of the Corrosion Engineering, Metal Finishes, and Contacts Group.  Mr. Baker attended Rutgers University and took graduate work on electrical contact theory at Pennsylvania State University.  He served on the AES Research Board and was a member of the Allentown-Reading Branch of the American Electroplaters Society.  He was instrumental in developing the CEF program.  In retirement, he served the AESF in several capacities over many years.

DO’S AND DON’TS

Hydrogen Embrittlement from Plating Processes

By Donald W. Baudrand, CEF

Originally published as D. W. Baudrand, Plating & Surface Finishing, 94 (2), 20 (February 2007)

Do's and Don'ts to minimize and/or eliminate hydrogen embrittlement from high strength steels, copper alloys or other alloys.

What is hydrogen embrittlement?  How does it form?  What is the mechanism, i.e., how does it take place?  Why does hydrogen cause embrittlement?  I really do not know the answer to the preceding four questions.  There are numerous scientific papers dealing with these questions.  I have read many of them over time and I still don't know.  An excellent paper was given by Dr. Chris Raub¹ when he received the AESF Scientific Achievement Award at AESF SUR/FIN 1993, entitled "Hydrogen in Electrodeposits: Of Decisive Importance, But Much Neglected."

What I do know is that hydrogen embrittlement can cause catastrophic failure of high strength steel and other alloys.  The failure is usually in the form of cracking or complete separation.  It can also cause blisters in both the basis metal and at the plating interface, reduced ductility, internal voids and lower yield strength.

What steels are subject to hydrogen embrittlement?  I have found controversy about this.  In general, high-strength steels, including "low alloy steels" and some stainless steels are vulnerable.  Often steels susceptible to embrittlement are related to their tensile strengths.  Dini² indicates that steels with tensile strength values of 1240 to 2140 MPa (180,000 to 310,000 lb./in²) are susceptible to embrittlement.  Other references indicate risk above 1100 MPa (160,000 lb./in²).  In general, the higher the tensile strength of the steel, the more susceptible it is to hydrogen inclusion and embrittlement.  Even austenitic alloys are susceptible.  Maraging high-strength steels with tensile strengths of 2740 MPa (397,000 lb./in²) have higher susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.

In an article by Paatsch,³ ultra high strength steel fuse holder rings of C75 (German standard DIN 471) and were plated in various plating solutions and under a number of different preparation cycles.  The results and conclusions are interesting.  The processing used was as follows: an alkaline cleaner; followed by pickling in 12% HCl-inhibited acid for 0 to 600 seconds; followed by plating.  The deposits studied included zinc plating in eight different zinc plating solutions, Watts nickel, sulfamate nickel, cyanide copper and acid copper.  There were failures using a modified constant load test derived from ASTM F 519.⁴

A summary of the results shows that all of the samples using 60 sec or more pickle time failed at time intervals of up to 24 hr heating at 220°C (428°F) regardless of the plating solution used.  Some samples required 70 hr of heat treatment after plating, to pass the tests.  The samples that used less than 60 sec of inhibited HCl pickle showed no failures at all, regardless of the type of plating solution used.

A note about electroless nickel and hydrogen

Electroless nickel (EN) generates hydrogen as a part of the deposition reaction.  Therefore, hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels can occur.  What is different about electroless nickel deposits, you ask?  Remember that electroplated deposits are crystalline.  That is, they have grain boundaries from which hydrogen can escape during the baking process.  Electroless nickel is virtually amorphous (without grain structure).  Since there are no grains, it is very difficult for hydrogen to pass through electroless nickel deposits, particularly thicker deposits where there is little or no porosity. 

How then, can hydrogen relief take place?  Sometimes EN deposits over 25.4 μm (0.001 in.) thick will crack on heat-treating at high temperatures or at low temperatures for long times.  Hydrogen can then escape.  But we usually do not want cracks because they may induce cracks in the basis metal.  Another method is to mask a non-critical area so that there is an unplated area from which hydrogen can escape on baking.  Also baking should start at very low temperature for a long time, followed by a gradual increase in temperature to the recommended level.  EN deposits with thicknesses of 25.4 μm (0.001 in.) or higher are very likely to crack if heated to 300°C (572°F) or above.  The cracking is due to the reduction in volume as the nickel phosphorus changes to crystalline (Ni₃P).

What did I learn from all this coupled with many years of experience?  Here are a few precepts to consider:

Do's

• Do be aware that hydrogen embrittlement can cause serious failures.
• Do use appropriate heat relief of entrapped hydrogen.  The time and temperature combination must be such that tests prove no failure.
• Do test very soon after plating, one to three hr.  Test another baked sample after many hours.
• Do realize that the bake time and temperature required to do the job may be much more than the standards ask for.  Always test.
• Do use solvent degreasing, alkaline soak cleaning or anodic alkaline cleaning (if required for specific soils).
• Do use inhibited acid for pickling, if pickling is really necessary.  Not all inhibitors work well.  Test the results.
• Do consider shot grit blasting, vibratory cleaning and shot peening.  Shot peening is good for lowering the surface stress.
• Do consider alternative coating processes such as mechanical plating of zinc, Ti-cad or other suitable metals.  There is also powder coating to consider.

Don'ts

• Don't assume that just because you followed the recommended post plating bake cycle that the hydrogen is removed sufficiently to pass the tests.
• Don't use strong or non-inhibited acid pickles.
• Don't use the same bake cycle for electroless nickel deposits unless there is an unplated escape area on the part.
• Don't rely on a simple bend test shortly after plating.  Bend tests are not reliable for hydrogen embrittlement determination.  There is no reliable quick test.
• Don't use cathodic preplating treatments.  A nickel strike for activation of stainless and other nickel-containing alloys may be required.  Be assured that there will be significant infusion of hydrogen.  A longer than usual bake cycle may be required.

References

1.     C.J. Raub, Plating & Surface Finishing, 80 (9), 30 (1993).

2.     J.W. Dini, Electrodeposition, The Material Science of Coating and Substrates, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1993.

3.     W. Paatsch, Plating & Surface Finishing, 83 (9), 70 (1996).

4.     ASTM F 519-06, Standard Test Method for Mechanical Hydrogen Embrittlement Evaluation of Plating/ Coating Processes and Service Environments, ASTM International, W. Conshohocken, NJ, 2006.

Mr. Don Baudrand, CEF was an independent metal finishing consultant, based in Poulsbo, Washington, since 1994.  He received his B.A. in Chemistry from Whittier College, California and did Graduate Work at the University of California – Berkeley.  From 1954 to 1966, he was Owner and President of Electrochemical Laboratories, and until 1994, was Vice-President at Allied-Kelite.  He was a member of several professional associations including NASF, the International Microelectronics and Packaging Society, SME, SAE and the Institute of Metal Finishing.  He held ten U.S. patents and numerous foreign patents and authored over 70 published papers.

FACT OR FICTION?
 

The Precautionary Principle

By Jack W. Dini
Originally published as J.W. Dini, Plating & Surface Finishing, 89 (7), 36 (July 2002)

• Better safe than sorry.

• Just in case.

• Above all, do no harm.

• Do nothing new until it can be absolutely proven to be completely safe.

All of the above statements have been used to describe the precautionary principle (hereinafter referred to as PP).  Few policies for risk management have created as much controversy as PP, which emerged in Europe in the 1970s and is now in environmental statutes and policies - including the margin of safety requirement for setting ambient air quality standards under the Clean Air Act, the Rio Declaration from the 1992 Earth Summit, and industrial practices involved in product testing and environmental management.¹  Yet, despite its seemingly widespread political support, PP has engendered endless controversy, in part because of the confusion surrounding its interpretation.

One legal analysis identified 14 different formulations of the principle in treaties and nontreaty declarations.²  The "strongest" formulation of the principle can be interpreted as calling for absolute proof of safety before allowing new technologies to be adopted.  The World Charter for Nature (1982) states that "where potential adverse effects are not fully understood, the activities should not proceed."  Foster, et al.,² points out that if this is interpreted literally, no new technology could meet this requirement.  Some PP formulations open the door to cost-benefit analysis and discretionary judgment, while still others call for decisions in the absence of any scientific evidence at all.

If the stronger PP criteria were followed, something as common as salt or pepper or sugar or Vitamin D could never be added to prepared foods.  Any of these might be carcinogens to which everyone is unavoidably exposed - the last three have, in fact, been shown to cause cancer in at least one animal test.³

Application of PP decades ago to innovations (such as polio vaccines and anti-biotics) might have prevented occasionally serious, and sometimes fatal, side effects by delaying or denying approval of those products.  That precaution would have come at the expense of millions of lives lost to infectious diseases, however.⁴

PP is about risk, and life is risk.  If you want to be a strong advocate of PP in your daily living, perhaps you should not even get out of bed in the morning, because as soon as you do this, you take a risk.  Even if you decide to stay in bed, you take a risk.  About 20 Britons die every year as a result of falling out of bed, while 30 die in their bathtubs.  Around 600 die on their own stairs.⁵

How difficult is it to get dressed?  For some people, the answer must be "very."  In 1997, some 50,000 close calls were seen by emergency room doctors.  A pair of socks can spell disaster.  Emergency rooms treat hundreds of sock-wearing accident victims who have slipped and taken bad spills.⁶  You can choke to death on a lump of health food.⁵  Risking and living are inseparable (hospitals make people sick; exercise can hurt you; herb tea is laden with carcinogens, etc.).  Even breathing, according to a prominent theory in which cancer is caused by oxygen radicals created through the burning of fat, can kill.³

One could go on and on with these types of statistics, and if you want to really capture the spirit of our fearful times, read: I'm Afraid, You 're Afraid; 448 Things to Fear and Why, by Melinda Muse.⁶  This volume is an A-to-Z compilation that will provide you with enough information to show you there is nowhere to run, nowhere to hide - it's no longer survival of the fittest, but of the wariest.  The book is a textbook of life's hazards - from abstinence to zippers, martinis to yard sales, it's all here.  Things you must not touch, places to flee, creatures and people to avoid.  A must-read if you're a worry wart.

Getting back to PP and its advocates, in recent years, those advocating the stronger definitions of PP have sought to narrow both the information and the choices available for society to make important decisions, ranging from public policy issues, to consumer products and the application of science.  This use of a narrowly focused PP has resulted in some devastating adverse consequences.  In 1991, Peru suffered a massive outbreak of cholera, which killed 7,000 people and afflicted more than 800,000 others.  This was caused by Peru's decision to ban the chlorination of drinking water, based on American studies that had shown there might be a slight chance of developing cancer due to chlorine.  But the chances of cancer death from chlorinated water turned out to be far less than the risk of death due to a contaminated drinking supply.⁷

Another potential negative impact is the expenditure of large amounts of dollars to correct a problem of limited or negligible impact, thereby leaving less funding for other measures that could be more important.  Clean-ups are accomplished only by diverting resources from other worthy missions, including the avoidance of other health risks.  For example, putting the $6 billion per year being spent on Superfund toward cancer research would quadruple cancer research spending.⁸  Estimates put the cost of avoiding one case of cancer through Superfund clean-up at a whopping $11.7 billion."

Another example is lead.  Vast amounts of resources have been devoted to cleaning up lead at hazardous waste sites, while more significant sources of lead exposure, such as apartment paint and soil in urban areas, have received less attention.²

PP as a guide to decision-making under conditions of uncertainty suffers from another drawback.  If the future is really all that uncertain, how can one be confident that action taken today will not make things worse, rather than better?  For example, if effective action had been taken in the late 1960s and early 1970s to combat the fear, widespread among certain climatologists, that the world was entering a new Ice Age, the consequences now would have been most unfortunate.¹⁰  These are the same folks who now promote global warming.  Stayed tuned.  Who knows what our weather folks will be telling us 20 years from now.

Summary

PP is fundamentally a statement of values related to beliefs about how organizations and society ought to operate.  When combined with other desirable societal characteristics - such as sustainable development, investment in science and technology, science-based decision making and expanded consumer choices - PP can add an important dimension to the choices of civil society.¹

However, reformers must understand and effectively communicate five simple truths about risk regulation to convince the public that regulatory reform will result in more protection, not less:⁷

1. Not every risk is avoidable.

2. All risks are relative.

3. Wealthier is healthier.

4. Regulations can have adverse side effects, thereby creating more risk and less protection.

5. More lives would be saved if risks were prioritized.

Application of PP makes sense - if it's done with the above in mind.  Policymakers who rely on the strong definitions of PP, however, turn a blind eye toward the risk created by over-regulation.  This is a costly mistake.  For much of the world, the greatest environmental threats are derived from poverty and a lack of innovation, not new-fangled technologies.  By focusing on only those risks posed by the uncertainties of new technologies, PP turns a blind eye to the harms that occur, or are made worse, by the lack of technological development."

References

1.   T.F. Yosie, "Science-Based Decision Making at The Crossroads," Annual Meeting for Risk Analysis, Washington, DC (December 4, 2000).

2.   K.R. Foster, P. Vecchia & M.H. Repa-choli, Science, 288, 979 (May 12, 2000).

3.   A. Wildavsky, "Trial & Error Versus Trial Without Error," Rethinking Risk & the Precautionary Principle, J. Morris, Editor, Butterworth Heinemann (2000).

4.   H.I. Miller & G. Conko, "Genetically Modified Fear & the International Regulation of Biotechnology," Rethinking Risk & the Precautionary Principle, J. Morris, Editor, Butterworth Heinemann (2000).

5.   J. Brignell, Sorry, Wrong Number, Brignell Associates (2000).

6.   M. Muse, I'm Afraid, You're Afraid; 448 Things to Fear and Why, Hyperion (2000).

7.   J.C. Shanahan & A.D. Thierer, "How to Talk About Risk: How Well-intentioned Regulations Can Kill," The Heri¬tage Foundation, Report No. 13 (April 23, 1996).

8.   Cutting Green Tape, R.L. Stroup & R.E. Meiners, Editors, The Independent Institute (2000).

9.   D. Mastio, "Reform Speeds Toxic Clean-ups," The Detroit News, May 9, 2000.

10. W. Beckerman, "The Precautionary Principle & Our Obligations to Future Generations," Rethinking Risk & the Pre-cautionary Principle, J. Morris, Editor, Butterworth Heinemann (2000).

11. J.H. Adler, "Better Safe Than Sorry?" Intellectual Ammunition, 8, 6 (Nov./Dec. 1999), The Heartland Institute.

Jack Dini earned a Bachelor of Metallurgical Engineering degree from Cleveland State University and began his career in the 1950s with Cleveland Supply Co. (now Pavco).  He spent a few years at Republic Steel's research center and Battelle Columbus Laboratories.  In 1962, he joined Sandia Laboratories, Livermore, CA, where he was involved with electrodeposition projects for 18 years before moving to Lawrence Livermore (LLNL) in 1980.  He was section leader, fabrication processes. Responsibilities included direction of activities in five groups: electroplating and metal finishing, vacuum processes, metal fabrication, plastics and optics.  He is the author or coauthor of some 180 technical papers and, while many researchers are content to specialize in one or two fields, he made significant contributions to more than half a dozen disciplines in surface finishing.  He is the author of two books, Electrodeposition- The Materials Science of Coatings and Substrates, and Challenging Environmental Mythology: Wrestling Zeus.  The scientific community is fortunate that he carefully documented his work, sharing it with others around the world.  It includes plating uncommon metals, alloy plating, printed circuits, chemical milling, electrojoining and gathering electrochemical/property data.

CIRCUIT TOPICS

The Future of Circuit Board Manufacture

By Dr. Alan M. Poskanzer

Originally published as A.M. Poskanzer, Plating & Surface Finishing, 72 (12), 18 (December 1985)

The PC board industry is severely recessed at the moment and there are a lot of concerned folks.  Not to worry - the future is going to be bright because it holds new and exciting technology.  Those who are "with it" will share the bright future.  The current recession is merely a blip on our time line.  History dictates that our industry is cyclical and that we are now merely in a trough.  The crest of the wave is coming and this next one indeed will have some very nice features.

Where are we going and why?  Appropriately, let's close 1985 by peeping into our crystal ball.  As I see it, there are three driving forces for future developments: (1) surface-mount technology, (2) a need for more simple and perhaps dry processing and (3) environmental protection.

Surface Mount

As usual, there is a need for smaller PC boards.  We are forever demanding lighter and more compact electronic systems.  Miniaturization has had an enormous impact on our industry for years.  In that respect, little is changed.  It seems as though the more we can do with a smaller device, the more we want it.  It is logical.

A grand engineering development in the PC field is surface-mount technology (SMT).  It is just what the name implies - mounting components directly to conductor pads on the PC board without the use of mounting holes.

Surface-mount devices are becoming more widely available.  SMT allows boards to be fabricated with fewer and much smaller holes.  Furthermore, the holes need not be at the conductor ends with pads.  They can reside along the traces because they are used as via contacts only.  The methodology has profound implications on the design of circuit boards.  Most notably, the boards will be much smaller with the same circuit.

SMT will represent a large part of the industry within five years.  The Technical Marketing Research Council of the Institute for Printed Circuits (IPC) has estimated that 40 percent of the world's PC boards will be SMT types by 1990.  SMT will require superior imaging systems with higher resolving power, as well as different forms of chemical processing to build boards with finer lines and smaller holes.

Simple Processing

Even with SMT, PC boards nowadays are becoming tremendously intricate and therefore require process control and engineering almost beyond our capabilities.  The point is best made using a realistic example.

Imagine a circuit board with about 20 inner layers.  The overall thickness is about 0.180 inches.  There are some holes as small as 0.018 inches (10:1 aspect ratio).  Moreover, some inner layers are of 2-oz copper foil while others are ½ oz.  The holes must be desmeared after drilling and this is accomplished using a permanganate treatment process.

The first problem occurs when the resin in certain layers is bifunctional FR-4 while other layers contain the so-called tetrafunctional resin.  This causes various layers to be etched back to varying degrees (differential etchback).  Furthermore, due to the presence of ½-oz material, the residence time in the electroless pre-etch can be only 15-30 sec to prevent excessive attack on the small inner layers.

Such a panel requires processing with very narrow operating windows, and, in short, it is barely possible to build such a board.  Requirements for chemical processing are becoming more stringent all the time and there are limits.  One way to solve such problems is to use fresh approaches - whole new ideas.  New processes must be more easily controlled with fewer steps and broader operating latitudes.

Environmental Protection

The third driving force is the ever-increasing need to prevent harm to our environment through the discharge of chemical waste.  Suppliers to the PC industry are very sensitive about this issue and are feverishly trying to find ways to satisfy these requirements.

There is a lot of effort toward finding ways of dealing with chemical waste for existing processes - and necessarily so.  However, there is also considerable effort being expended to invent chemical processes that produce either more easily treated waste or none at all.

This driving force, coupled with the requirements for simpler processing, is resulting in unprecedented challenges on chemical suppliers to come up with new technology.

I can think of four areas of technology whose time has come.  In fact, I'll now go out on a limb by predicting that these technologies will find increasingly broad use over the next several years.  Here they are:

1. New Imaging Systems: As circuit trace dimensions continue to get smaller and SMT becomes increasingly popular, the limitations of dry-film photoresist will be tested more frequently.  There is also renewed activity and technology being made available in the area of liquid photoresists.

Liquid resists can be applied in much thinner films and are available in positive-working systems as well as negative (that is, they develop away where exposed).  Positive-working photoresists, due to their chemical nature, are inherently superior in resolving power.  In fact, positive resists are widely used to make integrated circuits.  Two years ago in this column, we stated that the PC industry would be borrowing technology from the chip manufacturers.  This is one area where that is happening.  For higher-density, surface-mount, finer-line boards, dry-film photoresist may become obsolete.

2. Semi-Additive Processing: This type of PC processing has been a sleeper for years.  Bare, unclad laminate is drilled, plated with electroless copper, imaged and pattern electroplated.  It is similar to the standard subtractive process except that unclad laminate is used.  The only drawback is that adhesion of the electroless copper to the resin surface must be enhanced in some way.

Assuming that it is enhanced, the advantages of semi-additive are enormous and do address the driving forces discussed above.  First, semi-additive obviates the need for deburring - no copper foil, no drilling burrs.  Second, there is far less copper to etch away at the end (0.05 mil of electroless vs. 1.5 mil of 1-oz clad foil).  Due to such a low thickness of background copper, the fine-line capability of semi-additive processing far exceeds that of the standard subtractive method.

3. Bright Tin: Bright tin plating has been construed as having limitations, but the technology has now been improved.  Due to the growing use of bare copper circuit boards with solder mask (SMOBC), there is a lot more solder stripped nowadays and far more lead-containing spent solder stripper disposed of.  Due to the obvious environmental impact, this cannot continue.

One of the most favorable solutions to this problem is to eliminate lead by plating 100 percent tin instead of 60 percent tin/40 lead.  We don't need to worry about the tin growing "whiskers" because it is only an etch resist, which is stripped anyhow.

4. Electroless Replacement: The electroless copper deposition process has been around for years and has been refined, improved and "perfected."  Still, to this day, there remains a six-step process that is somewhat intricate chemically.  It is frequently a source of problems to the PC shop and of high service to the vendor.  Due to the complexity of PC boards now being fabricated, process operating windows are becoming narrower, resulting in more problems and more service.  The industry is becoming ripe for something entirely new that is easier to use and has fewer steps and a broad operating latitude.

Such technology is likely to become available in some form simply because there is a need, there is room for improvement, and there are many brilliant minds around who would love to make obsolete the electroless copper process.  Any takers?

Well, now that you've heard my predictions ... just sit back and wait!

Dr. Alan M. Poskanzer received his B.S. in Chemistry in 1969 from Clarkson College of Technology, Potsdam, NY. He remained at Clarkson where he received his M.Sc. in Physical Chemistry in 1971, and his Ph.D. in 1974, majoring in Physical Chemistry and minoring in Colloid and Surface Science. While at Clarkson he was an affiliate member of the Institute of Colloid and Surface Science. Following receipt of his Ph.D., Dr. Poskanzer began his working career at the Shipley Co. Inc., Newton, MA, as Senior Research Chemist.

FINISHER'S THINK TANK

Spray Cleaning - Do It the Right Way

By Stephen F. Rudy, CEF

Originally published as S.F. Rudy, Plating & Surface Finishing, 89 (7), 38 (July 2002)

Organic finishes, such as painting and powder coating, have become more popular, based on factors such as:

• Consumer demand;

• Product styles; and

• Corrosion protection.

Finishing operations, based on the type of coating application, may incorporate these benefits: waste minimization, recycling, and easier waste treatment.  The importance of spray cleaning as part of these finishing cycles in the surface preparation of metals has become more evident.  If the base metal surface has not been sufficiently cleaned in the first step, subsequent conditioning (e.g., phosphatizing) followed by organic coating, will certainly fall below desired quality.  Spray cleaning incorporates the benefits of mechanical action and chemical reaction, effectively removing oils, grease, smuts and other soils related to the manufacture and fabrication of parts.  Doing it right means spraying it right, thereby cleaning it right.  Let's review some considerations for spray cleaning, with suggestions and troubleshooting tips.

Parts

"Parts is parts" - a sometimes-heard line, is a gross misstatement.  Parts are unique, based on factors such as their make-up, alloy, surface condition or heat treatment.  Steels may be hot or cold rolled.  Mechanical forming drives oils and metallic shavings into the part surface.  Heat treating bakes and bums oil and grease into surface pores, while also forming oxide scale.  Mass finishing may leave media residue or compounds from chemical processing on the surface.  Storage time of parts and atmospheric humidity may accelerate rusting.  These are some concerns with regard to knowing the alloy of metal, method of fabrication or machining, heat treating and initial surface treatment.  Understanding what's been done to the parts we have helps to develop an effective cleaning cycle.

It's common to have a mix of products or variety of parts designated for organic finishing in the same process line, or equivalent cycle.  Aluminum, brass, copper alloys, steel, stainless steel and zinc may be run interchangeably.  Often, individual parts may be fabricated using mixed metals or alloys.  These concerns affect the chemistry of the cleaner, along with the cleaning demands or requirements.

Fixturing or Racking

Parts are exposed to the impact of mechanical spraying of cleaners, rinses, phosphates and any other process solutions.  Fixturing or racking of parts should be firm, allow full exposure to treatment solutions, provide for complete drainage of solutions, and minimize entrapment and carryover of solutions.  The racks or fixtures should be fabricated from materials compatible to the chemistry exposure, coated with appropriate plastic, vinyl or similar protective coatings.  Reconditioning or stripping of rack tips (chemical immersion or oven) should not attack the materials of their construction or coatings.

Spray Cleaner

A variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals, along with alloys and mixed components, are spray cleaned.  The critical step of spray cleaning may be conducted off-line, to pre-clean or, as is common, as part of an automatic process line (e.g., three- or five-stage machines).  Spray cleaners offer the following benefits:

• Low-foaming cleaning action for dis-placement of soils;

• Mechanical action, which facilitates cleaning;

• Lower temperature ranges, reducing energy use and cost economizing.

Spray cleaning solutions may range in pH from near neutral (6-8) to high pH (14).  This enables the use of selected solutions to clean a mix of metals, including aluminum, brass, copper alloys, steel, stainless steel and zinc.  Displacement of oils and grease is preferred.  The sprayed cleaner is recirculated from a separate tank, usually incorporating mechanical skimming devices, overflow weir, coalescer or membrane filtration.  In this way, the soils are continually separated, preventing their redeposition on parts, and lengthening the cleaner service life.

The spray cleaner's active level of surfactants and wetting agents is usually lower than the requirement for an immersion soak cleaner.  This is because mechanical spraying significantly helps to remove the soils wetted and loosened by surfactants and wetting agents.  The levels of these organic cleaning agents, importance of cloud point (related to surfactants), and incorporating defoamers, contribute to maintaining the important low-foaming characteristics.  Water hardness conditioners are very critical to successful spray cleaning.  Spray nozzles must be kept free of calcium, magnesium deposits and soap sludges to prevent plug-gage.  If it doesn't squirt, it doesn't work.

Liquid and powder spray cleaners are effectively used in many applications.  Typical operating parameters are given in the accompanying table.

Some troubleshooting items have been mentioned, and these and additional considerations are given in the following breakdown.

Failure to Adequately Clean

• Concentration of spray cleaner under-concentrated. Adjust as required.
• Solution temperature out of range. Adjust accordingly.
• Insufficient residence time for spray cleaner contact.  Adjust accordingly.  This may affect overall line speed, and other processes, specifically rinsing and phosphate.
• Chemistry of spray cleaner not sufficient for the specific cleaning requirement.  Conduct appropriate evaluation to determine if surfactants and wetters or alkalinity should be changed.  Consider separate precleaning of troublesome parts.
• Spray nozzle.  Insufficient pressure, plugged, or spray pattern.  Adjust pressure, replace or clean plugged nozzles, confirm water conditioner blended into spray cleaner, install spray head delivering desired pattern on parts.
• Redepositing previously removed soils.  Service mechanical oil removal devices.  Determine if cleaner service life has been exceeded and replace with fresh make up.
• Previously applied coating on parts (e.g., anodize, lacquer, phosphate). Determine °C, Time, min Agitation, psi optimum stripping method, chemical or mechanical.

There is another problem often overlooked.  This is the accumulated buildup of organic coatings (lacquers, paints, powder coats) on racks and fixtures.  Failure to remove these agglomerated materials has the effect of slowing the speed of conveyorized lines.  This may result in or contribute to overcleaning or etching of parts, and usually a reduction in productivity.

Organic finishes, especially powder coating, have become popular for several reasons, including the ones given here.  Surface preparation, especially cleaning, critically affects subsequent organic finishing.  Spray cleaning is a quick, effective method for removal of surface soils prior to the conditioning step before paint or powder.  Spray cleaning - do it the right way.

Stephen F. Rudy, CEF began his finishing career at the Frederick Gumm Chemical Co. in 1983. He was with the Gumm company for over 16 years and went through several corporate acquisitions before landing at Hubbard-Hall, where he spent his last 12 years doing technical support for the company’s many clients.  Over his 40+ year career, he has seen and solved many issues that occur in plating operations.  Steve graduated with a chemistry degree from Rutgers University and continued with graduate degree studies in chemistry.  He achieved his CEF designation soon after entering the metal finishing industry.  He has been a prolific author in his career in metal finishing.  He authored two chapters in the Metal Finishing Guidebook and Directory, addressing general surface preparation and for specific metal alloys, in addition to acid pickling.  He contributed Finisher’s Think Tank to Plating & Surface Finishing for over 10 years

As a corporate Technical Service Manager, Rudy’s product R&D lab and pilot work encompassed cleaning, plating, and post treatments. Additionally, his dedicated research work formulated product development of specialty cleaning processes, environmentally compliant stripping organic coatings, and effective mass finishing systems.  He was also a plating school instructor for many years.  He was past two-term AESF Garden State Branch President and was on the board of the MAMF.

DEPOSIT DISPARITIES

Progress in Electroforming

By William H. Safranek, CEF

Originally published as W.H. Safranek, Plating & Surface Finishing, 75 (3), 18 (March 1988)

Dating back to 1839, electroforming is older than electroplating.  The fabrication of electrotypes for printing Russian bank notes was the first application.  The several hundred patents on electrotypes issued since illustrate a progression of improvements in a technology that still thrives.  The sophisticated process of electroforming printing plates to produce currency at the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing is one such application that has been described in P&SF (R.H. Williams, Jan. 1987).

But printing plates represent only one of hundreds of electroforming uses cited in the literature.  A review that appeared [75] years ago (Plating, 35, 49, 1948) listed more than 50 and described techniques for producing some common articles such as record stampers, molds, reflectors, heat exchangers, paint spray masks, tubing and foil.  A few unusual products, including bellows, caskets, dentures, floats and nozzles, also were mentioned.

Many more uses were detailed in a 1962 symposium (see ASTM STP No. 318), which also included particulars on the selection and preparation of mandrels for different applications.  Soon thereafter, ASTM B-431 summarized these procedures and has since been updated from time to time to promote electroforming.

Deliberations in the early '60s defeated an attempt to modify the definition of electroforming - the term originally coined by the late Dr. William Blum.  The purists insisted that the starting mandrel had to be separated from the deposit before the term could be accurately applied.  By contrast, the extremists wanted to include processes that more accurately could be called "electrocladding," where the deposit remains unseparated from the pre-shaped mandrel.

Circuit Foil

Nearly all printed circuit boards use electroformed copper foil, except for a few that employ an additive process.  On a tonnage basis, more metal is consumed for this application than for any other.  Electroformed foil played a vital role in the development of PWB technology partly because high-purity, pinhole-free foil with the desired thickness and mechanical properties could be made at a lower cost than a melting, casting and rolling process and partly because electroforming was easy to integrate with a surface treatment process that promotes bonding to epoxy boards.  The treatment grows a thin layer of leaf-like micronodules and creates laminates with a bond strength several times stronger than those made with rolled stock.

High-speed deposition converts scrap copper directly to high-purity foil.  In a variation of the foil production process, predefined circuits are formed on a stainless steel belt patterned with a stop-off and transferred to a flexible plastic coil precoated with an epoxy adhesive.  Copper with a thickness of about 0.001 in. is deposited in 1 min.

Structure Fabrication

A report in the October 1966 issue of Plating (p. 1211) summarized the status of electroforming for fabricating load-bearing structures such as pressure tanks, bulkheads, hemispheres, ducts, pipes and heat-transfer cones.  Some of these applications required a controlled thickness of only 0.001 in. but others were thicker than 0.5 in.  The report discussed the use of "grow-in's," or preformed inserts for strengthening sensitive areas, and the importance of effective electrojoining techniques.  Details on shielding and conforming anodes for improving thickness uniformity also were included.  Most importantly, the report cited the advantage of a controlled sulfur content in nickel to obtain high strength (up to 200,000 psi) and avoid the notch sensitivity characteristic of nickel containing more than 0.017 percent sulfur.

More detail on techniques for fabricating structures emerged at a 1967 AESF Symposium on Electroforming in Dallas.  Cryogenic storage vessels, solar panels, manifolds and special forms of ducting were some examples of new products.  Improved methods for making nickel screen and iron foil also were described.  An AESF-ASTM symposium in 1974 included reports on combustion chambers, regeneratively cooled thrust chambers, optical parts, heart implantation devices, large space simulators, special channels, seamless belts and other parts.

In the 1980s, an active AESF Electroforming Committee has regularly scheduled sessions on the subject at SUR/FIN conferences.  New developments, improved procedures, and successful results have been documented each year.  For example, in 1987, ink-jet printing devices, linear accelerator gradients and laser components were the focus of several electroforming reports.

The Future

The authors of many of the reports cited above forecast increasing use of electroforming, and events repeatedly support these claims.  The time for explosive growth, surpassing previous expectations, may soon come.

Recent developments that could trigger this explosion include: (1) the confirmed recognition of the role of codepositing manganese to neutralize the harmful ductility and notch sensitivity effects of codeposited sulfur in nickel and its alloys; (2) improved techniques for depositing dispersion-strengthened metals and alloys using submicrometer-sized particles of oxides and carbides; and (3) the demonstrated capability of pulse plating to eliminate or greatly reduce stress and encourage the use of high-strength, high-modulus alloys that cannot be deposited without cracking using conventional DC.

Plating companies with a shrinking business volume due to styling changes or other reasons should think about electroforming.  A word of caution is appropriate, however.  The relatively crude techniques that once were accepted by purchasers of plated products won't work with electroforming, which is highly sophisticated and requires a thorough knowledge of production techniques and some homework on market potential.

William H. Safranek was Technical Editor of Plating and Surface Finishing from 1977 to 1991.  After graduating with a BS degree in chemistry from the University of Chicago, he was employed in the metal finishing industry for many years.  He joined the Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, OH, as a research scientist in 1945.  He became Assistant Chief of the Electrochemical Engineering Division in 1953 and Chief in 1971; he retired in 1977.

At Battelle he conducted or managed several research projects involving the development of property data for electrodeposited metals and alloys.  He was a pioneer in the development of electrolytic methods of joining two or more parts of dissimilar materials, in order to avoid undesirable high-temperature effects.  His early work broke new ground in the field of corrosion protection.  He later managed several projects in fast-rate plating of chromium, copper, gold, nickel and other metals.  His electroforming research resulted in a variety of new shapes and forms.  He holds 26 patents on which he is named inventor or coinventor and has authored or coauthored more than 100 technical articles.  

Mr. Safranek was the recipient of the 1979 AESF Scientific Achievement Award, recognized as the highest honor given by the society.  In 1984 he received the Simon Wernick International Award for achievement and leadership in surface finishing from the International Union for Electro-deposition and Surface Finishing.  He has also received several awards for papers presented at AESF conferences.  During his involvement with AESF, Mr. Safranek served on several committees, the Board of Directors, and held national office as Second Vice President, First Vice President, and President.  He received the Proctor Memorial Leadership award in 1969.

Editor’s Note: This NASF-AESF Foundation research project report covers the 14^th quarter of project work (July-September 2023) at Wayne State University in Detroit.  A printable PDF version of this report is available by clicking HERE.

Overview

It is widely recognized in many industries that sustainability is a key driver of innovation.  Numerous companies, especially large ones who made sustainability as a goal, are achieving clearly more competitive advantages.  The metal finishing industry, however, is clearly behind others in response to the challenging needs for sustainable development. 

This research project aims to:

1. Create a metal-finishing-specific sustainability metrics system, which will contain sets of indicators for measuring economic, environmental and social sustainability,
2. Develop a general and effective method for systematic sustainability assessment of any metal finishing facility that could have multiple production lines, and for estimating the capacities of technologies for sustainability performance improvement,
3. Develop a sustainability-oriented strategy analysis method that can be used to analyze sustainability assessment results, identify and rank weaknesses in the economic, environmental, and social categories, and then evaluate technical options for performance improvement and profitability assurance in plants, and
4. Introduce the sustainability metrics system and methods for sustainability assessment and strategic analysis to the industry.

This will help metal finishing facilities to conduct a self-managed sustainability assessment as well as identify technical solutions for sustainability performance improvement.

Progress Report (Quarter 14)

1. Student participation

Mahboubeh Moghadasi, a Ph.D. student in the PI’s group, conducted research in this reporting period.  She was financially supported mainly by the PI’s two grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and partially by this AESF research project.  Her research has been focused on the development of a set of Digital Twins (DTs) using the Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINN) technology.  She has made impressive progress in learning PINN fundamentals, writing computer codes using Python - a high-level, general-purpose programming language, and simulating a PINN-based cleaning system model set.  The technical component of this report is mainly based on her research, under the PI’s supervision.

Ryan Kitelinger, an undergraduate student of chemical engineering at Florida Institute of Technology, was hired by the PI as an NSF REU fellow to conduct 10-week research in the PI’s lab during the Summer Academy of Sustainable Manufacturing at Wayne State University (June 1 to Aug. 10, 2023).  The student learned the fundamentals of electroplating and engineering sustainability through literature survey and conducted computer simulation of a cleaning system model set, assisted by Mahboubeh Moghadasi.  The student presented his work during the PI’s lab group’s meetings and the Summer Academy at Wayne State every week.  He was recognized as the Best REU Student during the Poster Symposium of the WSU-NSF REU Summer Academy in Sustainable Manufacturing on Aug. 10, 2023.

2. Summary of project activities

Since no publication on the PINN-based DT for electroplating has been identified, we have first provided a general description about the PINN in this report.  We then present a set of reduced-order first-principle-based models for parts cleaning, which is a core part of the PINN.  It is necessary to state that the PINN-based DT is a very new research area.  The purpose of our study in this period is to understand how the PINN works, how to structure it appropriately, and how to train and analyze it effectively in the application to cleaning systems.

2.1 PINN-based digital twinning: basics and architecture

General description.  Advanced manufacturing comes into the digital age.  Among top strategic digital technologies, Digital Twin (DT) technology has received significant attention.  DT is a virtual representation that serves as a digital counterpart of a physical object or system.  It is characterized by real-time reflection, interaction and convergence in physical space between historical data and real-time data, and between physical and virtual spaces, and self-evolution.  A more recent development in the DT community is the introduction of PINN, which is a type of universal function approximator that can embed the knowledge of any physical laws that govern a given data-set in the learning process.  The PINN is an innovative Artificial Intelligence (AI) approach that combines conventional neural network (NN) architectures with the principles of physics (Nascimento, et al., 2020).¹  Unlike regular NNs that rely solely on input data, the PINN ensures that its predictions align with established physical laws, resulting in predictions that are both data-informed and physically consistent.  This unique fusion allows for more accurate simulation and the ability to adapt to real-world variations by adjusting physical parameters based on actual system data.

A remarkable advantage of PINN is its ability to handle situations with limited data effectively. Data scarcity is a common challenge in many real-world applications, and PINNs offer an efficient solution to address this issue (Raissi, et al., 2018).²  By leveraging its inherent understanding of physical laws, PINNs can make predictions beyond the scope of training data.  This capability is particularly valuable in scenarios where data availability is limited or incomplete, which is often the case in electroplating plants.  Furthermore, PINNs can provide more transparent and interpretable information, as compared with many other NNs, which are often criticized for their "black box" nature.  This transparency allows researchers and practitioners to gain insights when making decisions.  PINNs have been successfully applied to solve forward and inverse problems involving nonlinear partial differential equations (PDEs).  However, like any technology, the PINN approach has its limitations.  The integration of physical laws into the NN architecture increases its computational demands, which may require more robust hardware or extended training periods (Nascimento et al., 2020).¹  Additionally, a solid grasp of relevant physical laws is essential for effective implementation of PINNs.  Complex scenarios with unique physical properties may pose integration challenges that need to be carefully addressed.  One approach is to use parametric reduced-order models (ROM), instead of PDE, in PINNs (Fu, et al., 2023).³

In pursuit of developing strategies and solutions for electroplating sustainability, we have been studying a PINN-based DT approach.  The PINN consists of sets of nonlinear ROMs representing any process, such as alkaline or acid cleaning, single or multiple rinsing, and types of plating.

Architectural aspects.  We have explored architectural integration approaches to harness the full potential of PINN when studying electroplating systems.  The structure and design of an NN play a pivotal role in determining its efficiency, scalability and overall performance.  Given the unique nature of PINN, where physical laws intertwine with data-driven learning, it is imperative to select the appropriate architecture that can seamlessly blend these two realms.  The following two primary architectures have been investigated.

PINN as a layer in a Feed-forward Neural Network (FNN).  In this setup, a PINN is incorporated as a concluding layer within a standard FNN.  Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the PINN.  While this design ensures a streamlined integration of physical laws into a prediction process, it operates predominantly in a sequential manner.  This means that each input passes through the network in a predefined order.  While effective in many cases, it might not be able to fully capture the temporal dynamics of certain processes. 

PINN as a cell in a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN).  This design treats a PINN as an integral cell (Fig. 2a) within an RNN (Fig. 2b).  Recurrent networks are known for their ability to remember past information, making them particularly suitable for processes that have temporal sequences or where past events influence future outcomes.  By embedding a PINN in this structure, we can ensure that both temporal dynamics and physical laws are considered concurrently during predictions.

2.2 PINN-based DTs for general cleaning systems
 

Figure 2 - PINN-embedded RNN: (a) a PINN cell and (b) an RNN configuration.

As the core component of the PINN-based DTs, the integrated, intertwined cleaning system models can provide the following time variant information: (i) the surface cleanness of the parts in cleaning units, and (ii) the chemical concentration dynamics in the units.

Integrated cleaning system DT – Parametric Reduced-Order Models.  In a cleaning unit, chemicals are consumed to remove dirt from the surface of parts and then partially lost through drag-out.  The amount of dirt on parts is negatively proportional to a dirt removal rate, which is determined by the type of chemicals used, their concentrations, and the type and amount of the dirt on parts. The dirt removal model has the following form.

                                                                             (1)

                                                                       (2)

                                                                        (3)

where 𝐴_𝑝 is the total surface area of the parts in a barrel (cm²); 𝑊𝑝_𝑐 is the amount of dirt on parts (g/cm²); t is time (min); 𝑟𝑝_𝑐 is the dirt removal rate in the cleaning tank (g/min); 𝛾_𝑐 is the looseness of the dirt on parts (cm²·gal-soln/gal-chem·min); 𝐶_a is the chemical concentration in the cleaning tank (gal-chem/gal-soln); 𝛾₀ is the kinetic constant (cm²·gal-soln/gal-chem·min); 𝑡₀^𝑐 is the time when the barrel enters the cleaning tank, and 𝛼 is a constant.

The amount of chemicals in the cleaning unit changes in operation.  Its dynamics can be modeled as:

                                                                  (4)

where 𝑉_𝑐 is the capacity of the cleaning tank (gal-soln), and η is the chemical capacity coefficient for dirt removal (g-dirt/gal-chem).

Table 1 - Model parameters in the case study.

Model parameter settings.  Model parameters and initial conduction for simulation are listed in Table 1.  Note that two parameters (𝛾₀ and η) will vary in operation, which can be adjusted dynamically by the PINN.

2.3 Architecture selection, PINN training and accuracy and runtime study

We have conducted extensive simulation, testing and evaluation using two PINN architectures, the PINN-FNN and the PINN-RNN, for studying alkaline cleaning.  Comparing with the results shown in Figs. 3 to 6 (the blue and green curves in each figure), we found that the PINN-RNN was more capable of describing process dynamics, and more importantly of predicting system performance in the future, which was consistent with the governing physical principles.

Figure 4 - Dirt removal dynamics in a cleaning unit (by a PINN-RNN).

 

Figure 5 - Chemical concentration change in a cleaning unit (by a PINN-FNN).

Figure 6 - Chemical concentration change in a cleaning unit (by a PINN-RNN).

Table 2 – Model parameter adjustment.

Furthermore, when it comes to parameter adjustments for both the DTs, it is evident that the PINN-RNN provides a more accurate estimation of physical parameters (𝛾₀ and η) in Equations (3) and (4) (Table 2).  Note that the initial estimate of the parameters used by the PINN-FNN and the PINN-RNN were identical.  But the two parameters were automatically adjusted in the PINN-RNN, which made the model estimation and prediction more accurate, while the PINN-FNN had no ability to adjust them, which caused model prediction errors.

PINN-RNN training method.  In the realm of employing PINN in our DTs for cleaning, understanding and optimizing model training dynamics is crucial to ensuring the efficacy and accuracy of model-based prediction.  The training process adjusts the RNN’s weights and biases to minimize the difference between its predictions and actual observed data.  In the PINN simulation, the physical parameters are introduced as weights to the model.  In this context, we explored two primary training approaches, namely manual training and automated training utilizing Keras' model.fit() method.  Each shows its distinctive advantages and applicability.

Manual training, although computationally intense and often slower, offers nuanced, fine-tuned control over the learning process.  This is vital when dealing with models containing multiple parameters to be adjusted.  The approach is particularly beneficial for our cleaning system model, which includes two parameters to be adjusted.  Manual training allowed us to apply different learning rates for each parameter, which is a strategy that proves to be instrumental in navigating the complex parameter space without violating the physical constraints embedded in the PINN.

On the other hand, if a model has a single parameter to adjust, it is more suitable to use Keras’ model.fit() method.  This function performs the training process automatically, adjusting the model's parameters to minimize the loss function efficiently.  The singular parameter in a model meant that we could leverage the speed and computational efficiency of model.fit() without sacrificing the model's accuracy or physical consistency.

In essence, the choice of training strategy became inherently tied to the complexity of the model and the number of parameters requiring adjustment.  The dual approach, applying manual training for models with multiple parameters and utilizing model.fit() for those with a singular parameter, provided a balanced methodology.  This ensures that, across all models, the training process will be both computationally efficient and maintains the vital physical consistency and accuracy that PINN brings to the table.

Solution methods.  Two methods were explored for solving the parametric ROMs in Equations 1 to 4.  They are the Euler method and the Runge-Kutta method.  Our focus was to compare their computational accuracy and computational efficiency.

The Euler method is featured for its simplicity and computational efficiency.  If the reduced-order model (ROM) is first-order ODEs (either linear or nonlinear), this method is effective in solution derivation with a relatively low computational cost. The method uses a straightforward iterative process to advance the solution in small increments, making it especially appealing when dealing with real-time simulations or scenarios where computational resources might be limited. However, its solution can sometimes be less accurate than other methods, especially if a system experiences rapid or complex changes.

Conversely, the Runge-Kutta method is often lauded for its accuracy in numerical solutions of ordinary differential equations (ODEs).  While typically demanding more computational resources compared to the Euler method, the Runge-Kutta method offers enhanced precision by considering not just the initial point, but also taking midpoints into account in its iterative procedure.  This often results in more accurate approximations of solution, especially in scenarios where the system dynamics involve rapid or non-linear changes.

Table 3 – Solution method comparison.

Since the parametric ROM for cleaning are first-order nonlinear models, the Euler method was preferred.  This allowed us to achieve a harmonious balance of computational efficiency and solution accuracy.  The runtime and accuracy by different methods are summarized in Table 3.  Figures 7 to 10 show clearly that the predictions of the dirt removal from parts and the chemical concentration in the cleaning system by the Euler method is better than those by the Runge-Kutta method.
 

Figure 7 - Dirt removal dynamics using the Runge-Kutta method.
 

Figure 8 - Dirt removal dynamics using the Euler method.
 

Figure 9 - Chemical concentration by the Runge-Kutta method.
 

Figure 10 - Chemical concentration by the Euler method. 

Data reliability and data size. Data quality (reliability) and quantity (size) are critical to the successful application of PINN.  In an electroplating plant, the collected operational data are often imprecise and may contain various noises.  Thus, it is important to assess how well a PINN can navigate through those nuances while still providing dependable and actionable insights.

Outcomes using noisy data set.  One of the characteristics of PINN is its deftness in managing data of varied quality.  Our study shows that PINN can maintain a notable degree of effectiveness even when the data is not pristine.  Whether navigating through clean data, where variables are well-behaved and noise is minimal, or working with noisy data, where variables exhibit random fluctuations, PINN exhibited a robust capacity to make predictions that adhered closely to physical principles.  Figure 11 showcases the outcomes using noisy data, vividly illustrating the model’s predictability when facing data with varying degrees of noises.

Figures 11a (above) and 11b (below) - Simulation results obtained using noisy dataset.

Data size effect. On a parallel front, the effectiveness of PINN was also evaluated with respect to dataset size.  In a situation where data was scarce or limited, the intrinsic capability of PINN to leverage physical laws played a significant role.  This characteristic ensured that even with a small dataset, PINN could generate predictions that were not just data-driven but also substantiated by established physical principles.  It was observed that while the predictive accuracy with a small dataset might not match the precision achieved using larger datasets, the prediction was still quite reliable, maintaining adherence to the underlying physical phenomena.  These can be observed through comparing simulation results shown in Figures 12 to 14 and in Table 4.

Figure 12 - Dirt removal dynamics using (a) small and (b) large dataset (epochs=100).
 

Figure 13 - Chemical concentration dynamics using (a) small and (b) large dataset (epochs=100).
 

Figure 14 - Dirt removal and chemical concentration dynamics using small dataset (epochs=200).

2.4.  Results

Our in-depth study on the PINN with its application using the parametric reduced-order models (ROM) shows that the PINN-RNN, in conjunction with the Euler method for solution derivation is most effective.  The  extensive simulation shows that the PINN-based digital twinning of the cleaning system can characterize system’s dynamics very precisely, even if there exist data uncertainty and scarcity issues.  The key simulation results are listed below.

Single barrel based cleaning.  The dirt removal from parts and the chemical concentration changes in a cleaning system are shown in Figs. 12b and 13b, where the actual dynamics (the blue curves) and the predicted curves (the green curves, by the PINN-RNN) are matched very well.

Multiple barrel based cleaning.  We used the trained PINN-RNN to simulate the continuous operation of a cleaning system.  Assuming that each barrel contains 250 lbs. of parts, and the cleaning time of each barrel is 4 min, we simulated 48 barrels of parts for cleaning in the system.  The PINN was tasked with managing a considerably more dynamic and temporally influenced environment.  Various initial dirt amounts were considered in the simulation to become closer to a realistic process representation.  The simulations result, illustrated in Figs. 15 and 16, underscore a robust and stable prediction curve.  This stability was maintained even amidst the intricate and dynamic conditions of managing multiple barrels across varying cleaning stages.

Figure 15 - Dirt removal from the parts surface (Wp_c ) in 48 barrels (250 lbs. of parts per barrel).

Figure 16 - Chemical concentration (C_A) change in the period of cleaning 48 barrels

Automatic adjustment of model parameters.  Two model parameters, Gamma and Eta, are key ones to be adjusted, based on the dynamic change of operating conditions.  

Figure 17 – Adjustment of Gamma parameter values for 48-barrel cleaning.

The PINN-RNN was capable of adjusting them automatically.  Figures 17 and 18 show the parameter value adjustment, which contribute to the accurate prediction of parts cleaning quality as well as chemical concentration change in operation.

2.5 Summary

We have significantly gained a much deeper understanding and fundamental knowledge of PINN-based digital twinning for engineering applications.  Although the case study on general cleaning is relatively simple, we are now able to construct an effective PINN that contains parametric reduced order models (ROM) and conduct a comprehensive analysis of system performance.  The experience gained in the study will be very valuable for our next-step study in the following directions: (1) to develop PINNs for other types of cleaning, rinsing of different configurations and electroplating, and (2) to perform PINN-based dynamic sustainability assessment and decision making for sustainable manufacturing.  Hopefully, we will be able to demonstrate that the PINN-based DT technology will eventually be a game-changer for the research and practice for sustainable electroplating.

4. References

1.  R.G. Nascimento, K. Fricke and F.A.C. Viana, "A tutorial on solving ordinary differential equations using Python and hybrid physics-informed neural network", Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 96, 103996 (2020).

2.  M. Raissi, P. Perdikaris and G. Karniadakis, "Physics-informed neural networks: a deep learning framework for solving forward and inverse problems involving nonlinear partial differential equations", J. of Computational Physics, 378, 686-707 (2019).

3.  J. Fu, D. Xiao, Rui Fu, C. Li, C. Zhu, R. Arcucci and I.M. Navon, “Physics-data combined machine learning for parametric reduced-order modelling of nonlinear dynamical systems in small-data regimes,” Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 404, 115771 (2023).

6. Past project reports

1.   Quarter 1 (April-June 2020): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 84 (12), 14 (September 2020); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF20Sep1

2.   Quarter 2 (July-September 2020): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (3), 13 (December 2020); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF20Dec1

3.   Quarter 3 (October-December 2020): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (7), 9 (April 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Apr1.

4.   Quarter 4 (January-March 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (11), 13 (August 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Aug1

5.   Quarter 5 (April-June 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (1), 19 (October 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Oct2

6.   Quarter 6 (July-September 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (4), 19 (January 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Jan3

7.   Quarter 7 (October-December 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (7), 17 (April 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Apr2

8.   Quarter 8 (January-March 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (10), 17 (July 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Jul2

9.   Quarter 9 (April-June 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (1), 17 (October 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Oct1

10.  Quarter 10 (July-September 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (4), 17 (January 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Jan2

11.  Quarter 11 (October-December 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (6), 19 (March 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Mar1

12.  Quarter 12 (January-March 2023): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (10), 20 (July 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Jul1

13.  Quarter 13 (April-June 2023): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 88 (2), TBD (November 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Nov2

5. About the principal investigator (P.I.)

Dr. Yinlun Huang is a Professor at Wayne State University (Detroit, Michigan) in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science.  He is Director of the Laboratory for Multiscale Complex Systems Science and Engineering, the Chemical Engineering and Materials Science Graduate Programs and the Sustainable Engineering Graduate Certificate Program, in the College of Engineering.  He has ably mentored many students, both Graduate and Undergraduate, during his work at Wayne State.

He holds a Bachelor of Science degree (1982) from Zhejiang University (Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China), and M.S. (1988) and Ph.D. (1992) degrees from Kansas State University (Manhattan, Kansas).  He then joined the University of Texas at Austin as a postdoctoral research fellow (1992).  In 1993, he joined Wayne State University as Assistant Professor, eventually becoming Full Professor from 2002 to the present.  He has authored or co-authored over 220 publications since 1988, a number of which have been the recipient of awards over the years.

His research interests include multiscale complex systems; sustainability science; integrated material, product and process design and manufacturing; computational multifunctional nano-material development and manufacturing; and multiscale information processing and computational methods.

He has served in many editorial capacities on various journals, as Co-Editor of the ASTM Journal of Smart and Sustainable Manufacturing Systems, Associate Editor of Frontiers in Chemical Engineering, Guest Editor or member of the Editorial Board, including the ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering, Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, the Journal of Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, the Journal of Nano Energy and Power Research.  In particular, he was a member of the Editorial Board of the AESF-published Journal of Applied Surface Finishing during the years of its publication (2006-2008).

He has served the AESF and NASF in many capacities, including the AESF Board of Directors during the transition period from the AESF to the NASF.  He served as Board of Directors liaison to the AESF Research Board and was a member of the AESF Research and Publications Boards, as well as the Pollution Prevention Committee.  With the NASF, he served as a member of the Board of Trustees of the AESF Foundation.  He has also been active in the American Chemical Society (ACS) and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).

He was the 2013 Recipient of the NASF William Blum Scientific Achievement Award and delivered the William Blum Memorial Lecture at SUR/FIN 2014 in Cleveland, Ohio.  He was elected AIChE Fellow in 2014 and NASF Fellow in 2017.  He was a Fulbright Scholar in 2008 and has been a Visiting Professor at many institutions, including the Technical University of Berlin and Tsinghua University in China.  His many other awards include the AIChE Research Excellence in Sustainable Engineering Award (2010), AIChE Sustainable Engineering Education Award (2016), the Michigan Green Chemistry Governor’s Award (2009) and several awards for teaching and graduate mentoring from Wayne State University, and Wayne State University’s Charles H. Gershenson Distinguished Faculty Fellow Award.

Editor’s Note: The NASF-AESF Foundation Research Board selected a project addressing the problem of PFAS and related chemicals in plating wastewater streams.  This report covers the tenth quarter of work (April-June 2023). A printable PDF version of this report is available by clicking HERE.

1. Introduction

This project started in January 2021 with the goal of developing applicable electrochemical approaches to remove per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) present in plating wastewaters, including electrooxidation (EO) and electrocoagulation (EC). This project includes three research tasks that are designed to investigate EC, EO and EC-EO treatment train, respectively, designed to probe three hypotheses specified follows:  

1)  EC generates amorphous metal hydroxide flocs that can effectively adsorb PFASs in plating wastewater, which, through an appropriate treatment, can release PFASs into a concentrated solution.

2)  EO enabled by a Magnéli phase Ti₄O₇ anode can be used to effectively destruct PFASs in plating wastewater.

3)  The electrochemical treatment train comprised of EC and EO by Ti₄O₇ anode can remove and degrade PFASs in plating wastewater more efficiently than either process operated individually.

In our previous report, we described results on the performance of surface fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes on PFAS degradation in batch mode.  By comparing the reaction rate constant and anodic potential in pristine Ti₄O₇ anodes and surface fluorinated Ti₄O₇, we suggested that the intrinsic reactivity of Ti₄O₇ anodes towards PFAS was reduced upon surface fluorination but compensated by the increase in anode effective electroactive surface area (EESA) from fluorination.  In this quarterly report, we further examined the effect of surface fluorination of Ti₄O₇ anodes on PFAS degradation performance in terms of energy performance as well as formation of chlorate and perchlorate when chloride is present in the solution.

Figure 1 - EE/O in relation to the anodic potential for PFASs degradation during EO treatment in batch mode on pristine and surface fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes; initial PFAS concentration: 2 μM, supporting electrolyte: 100-mM Na₂SO₄ + 10-mM NaCl. 

Figure 1 - EE/O in relation to the anodic potential for PFASs degradation during EO treatment in batch mode on pristine and surface fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes; initial PFAS concentration: 2 μM, supporting electrolyte: 100-mM Na₂SO₄ + 10-mM NaCl.

2. Tests and results

Based on the measured reaction rate constants from our experiments illustrated in the last report, the electric energy required to reduce the concentration of target contaminant by one order of magnitude (EE/O) was calculated for each anode and plotted in Fig. 1.  For all anodes, it follows a general trend that the EE/O first decreases with increasing anodic potential because of rising reaction rates, but then increases as more energy is wasted on water oxidation at higher anodic potential.  The optimal range of the anodic potential appears to be 3.2 to 3.6 V_SHE regarding the lowest EE/O.  Surface fluorination of the anodes slightly increased the EE/O.  The EE/O at 10 mA/cm² were 5.09, 5.55, 5.84, 6.02 and 6.24 kWh/m³ for the pristine, F-2.31, F-7.34, F-11.4 and F-18.6 Ti₄O₇ anode, respectively.

Figure 2 - The F 1s scan of F-18.6 Ti₄O₇ anode before and after the  EO experiments.

After repeated EO experiments described above, XPS characterization was again performed on the F-18.6 Ti₄O₇ anode and compared to that collected before the EO experiment (shown in Fig. 2) to verify the stability of the anode surface fluorination.  As seen in the figure, the total atomic percentage of F increased from 18.6% to 20.31% after the EO experiments.  The CF₃(-CF₂-)_n at the binding energy of 689.5 eV before and after the EO experiments did not change significantly (16.2% to 16.4%), indicating great stability on the anode, while Ti-F at the binding energy of 684.9 eV increased from 2.40% to 3.91%.  This result may be due to the fluorine released from PFOA, PFOS and 6:2 FTS mineralization during EO binding to Ti on the Ti₄O₇ anode.¹

Cl^— can be oxidized to chlorate and perchlorate ions through a series of reactions, including DET and ·OH^—mediated reactions during electrooxidation, initiated by the oxidation of Cl^— to form Cl^— on the anode.^2,3 Formation of chlorate and perchlorate was observed during the EO treatments of PFASs shown in previous reports, as the testing solutions contained 10-mM NaCl.  Figure 3 displays the time-course profiles of the chlorate and perchlorate concentrations during the EO treatment at 10 mA/cm² with pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes, and their concentrations at the end of an 8-hr EO treatment at different anodic potentials are presented in Figure 4. It is evident in both figures that the formation of chlorate and perchlorate decreased with increasing surface fluorination.

Figure 3 - The formation of (A) chlorate and (B) perchlorate during EO with pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes at 10 mA/cm².  The solution contained PFOA, PFOS and 6:2 FTS each at the initial concentration of 2.0 μM.  Supporting electrolyte: 100-mM Na₂SO₄ + 10-mM NaCl.  The error bar represents standard deviations of replicates.

Figure 4 - The concentration of (A) chlorate and (B) perchlorate at different anodic potentials on pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anode after an 8-hr electrooxidation.  Initial PFAS concentration: 2 μM, supporting electrolyte: 100-mM Na₂SO₄ + 10-mM NaCl.  The error bar represents standard deviations of replicates.

3. References

1.  Y. Wang, L. Li, Y. Wang, H. Shi, L. Wang and Q. Huang, “Electrooxidation of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid on porous Magnéli phase titanium suboxide anodes: Impact of porous structure and composition,” Chemical Engineering Journal, 431 (1), 133929 (2022).

2.  Y.J. Jung, K.W. Baek, B.S. Oh and J-W. Kang, “An investigation of the formation of chlorate and perchlorate during electrolysis using Pt/Ti electrodes: The effects of pH and reactive oxygen species and the results of kinetic studies,” Water Research, 44 (18), 5345-5355 (2010).

3.  A. Donaghue and B.P. Chaplin, “Effect of Select Organic Compounds on Perchlorate Formation at Boron-doped Diamond Film Anodes,” Environmental Science & Technology, 47 (21), 12391-12399 (2013).

4. Past project reports

1.   Introduction to Project R-122: Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (6), 13 (March 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Mar1.

2.   Quarter 1 (January-March 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (12), 13 (September 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Sep1.

3.   Quarter 2 (April-June 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (3), 18 (December 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Dec2.

4.  Quarter 3 (July-September 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (6), 16 (March 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Mar2.

5.  Quarter 4 (October-December 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (9), 21 (June 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Jun2.

6.  Quarter 5 (January-March 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (12), 22 (September 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Sep2.

7.   Quarter 6 (April-June 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (3), 17 (December 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Dec1.

8.   Quarter 7 (July-September 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (6), 19 (March 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Mar2.

9.   Quarter 8 (October-December 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (9), 19 (June 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Jun1.

10.  Quarter 9 (January-March 2023): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (12), 17 (September 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Sep2

5. About the principal investigator

Qingguo (Jack) Huang is Professor in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin Campus.  He holds a B.S. in Environmental Science (1990) and a Ph.D. in Chemistry (1995) from Nanjing University, China as well as a Ph.D. in Environmenal Engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.  Dr. Huang’s research interest focuses on catalysis involved in the environmental transformation of organic pollutants, and development of catalysis-based technology for pollution control and environmental remediation and management.  His laboratory has been actively involved in several cutting-edge research topics:

• Enzyme-based technology for water/wastewater treatment and soil remediation
• Electrochemical and reactive electrochemical membrane processes in wastewater treatment
• Catalysis in biofuel production and agro-ecosystem management
• Environmental fate and destructive treatment methods of PFASs
• Environmental application and implication of nanomaterials

He has published over 170 peer-reviewed journal articles, five book chapters and had six patents awarded.  He has taught three courses at the University Georgia: Introduction to Water Quality, Environmental Measurement and Advanced Instrumental Analysis in Environmental Studies.

Editor’s Note: The NASF-AESF Foundation Research Board selected a project addressing the problem of PFAS and related chemicals in plating wastewater streams.  This report covers the ninth quarter of work (January-March 2023). A printable PDF version of this report is available by clicking HERE.

1. Introduction

This project started in January 2021 with the goal of developing applicable electrochemical approaches to remove per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) present in plating wastewaters, including electrooxidation (EO) and electrocoagulation (EC). This project includes three research tasks that are designed to investigate EC, EO and EC-EO treatment train, respectively, designed to probe three hypotheses specified follows:  

1)  EC generates amorphous metal hydroxide flocs that can effectively adsorb PFASs in plating wastewater, which, through an appropriate treatment, can release PFASs into a concentrated solution.

2)  EO enabled by a Magnéli phase Ti₄O₇ anode can be used to effectively destruct PFASs in plating wastewater.

3)  The electrochemical treatment train comprised of EC and EO by Ti₄O₇ anode can remove and degrade PFASs in plating wastewater more efficiently than either process operated individually.

Our previous report described our work to prepare and characterize surface fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.  The XPS test results have confirmed the anodes as being successfully surface fluorinated using an electrodeposition procedure in a reactive electrochemical membrane (REM) reactor.  In this quarterly report, we describe our work on evaluating the performance of PFAS degradation by electrooxidation using surface fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes in batch mode.

2. Experimental

Batch electrooxidation experiments were conducted using an acrylic electrolytic cell (6.50 cm × 5.50 cm × 5.70 cm) containing 50 mL reaction solution.  A pristine or a surface-fluorinated Ti₄O₇ plate was placed in the middle as the anode, and two 316 stainless steel plates of the same size and shape as the anode were placed on either side in parallel at a 2.50-cm gap as the cathodes, with a constant current density applied using a DC power source (Tacklife Inc, China).  The reaction solution contained a mixture of PFOS, PFOA and 6:2 FTS (2.0 μM each), 100 mM Na₂SO₄ and 10 mM NaCl as supporting electrolytes. Duplicate 500 μL samples were taken at each prescribed interval for chemical analysis.  A 400-μL aliquot was mixed with 400 μL methanol containing 80 ppb M8PFOS, M8PFOA and M2-6:2 FTS, filtered through a 0.22-μm polypropylene filter and then stored at 4℃ for subsequent analysis of PFAS.  All experiments were performed at room temperature at least twice to ensure consistent results.

3. Results and discussion        

The batch experiments of EO treatment were performed at five different current densities, including 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 15 mA/cm², for which the anodic potentials measured for each anode are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 - Current density and corresponding anodic potential on pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.

Table 1 - Current density and corresponding anodic potential on pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.

The degradation of PFOA, PFOS and 6:2 FTS in all systems appeared to follow a pseudo-first order kinetic model.  The observed reaction rate constant k_obs,PFAS  of PFAS degradation was calculated by data fitting to the equation:

                               (1)

where C_o,PFAS  is the substrate concentration at time zero (mol/L); C_t,PFAS  is the substrate concentration (mol/L) at time t (sec), PFAS in the subscript can be PFOA, PFOS or 6:2 FTS.

It should be noted that different anodes had different effective electroactive surface area-to-solution volume ratios.  Therefore, the PFAS degradation rate constant normalized to effective electroactive surface area (k_SA,PFAS ) was calculated to facilitate the comparison of reactivity among different pristine and surface-fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.  The surface area normalized reaction rate constant (k_SA,PFAS ) was calculated by the following equation (Valentine Richard and Wang, 1998)²:

k_SA,PFAS = k_obs,PFAS ×                      (2)

where S is the effective electroactive surface area (EESA) of the anode (m²), V is the volume of the reaction solution (m³) corresponding to the effective electroactive surface area; PFAS in the subscript can be PFOA, PFOS or 6:2 FTS.

The change of the concentrations of PFOA, PFOS and 6:2 FTS during EO with the pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes at 5 mA/cm² are presented in Figure 1.  Over 99% removal of all three PFASs was observed within 8 hours of EO treatment on the pristine and all-fluorinated anodes.

Figure 1 - The degradation of (A) PFOA, (B) PFOS  and (C) 6:2 FTS during EO with pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes at 5 mA/cm² in a mixed solution containing each of the three PFAS at 2.0 μM initial concentration.  Supporting electrolytes: 100 mM Na₂SO₄ + 10 mM NaCl.  The error bar represents standard deviations of replicates.

Figure 2 - Observed reaction rate constant k_{obs, PFAS}  in relation to the anodic potential for (A) PFOA, (B) PFOS and (C) 6:2 FTS  degradation using pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes; surface area normalized k_SA,PFAS  in relation to the anodic potential for (D) PFOA, (E) PFOS and (F) 6:2 FTS degradation using pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.  Initial PFAS concentration: 2 μM, supporting electrolyte: 100 mM Na₂SO₄ + 10 mM NaCl.  The error bar represents standard deviations of replicates.

The observed reaction rate constant and the surface area normalized rate constant for the degradation of PFOA, PFOS and 6:2 FTS on pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes are displayed in Figure 2.  It is evident that the observed reaction rate constants for all three PFASs were the highest for the system with the pristine Ti₄O₇ anode and decreased with increasing fluorination percentage on the anode surface.  Taking the reaction rates at 10 mA/cm² as an example, k_obs,PFOA  decreased by 4.63%, 7.20%, 10.3% and 20.2% on F-2.31, F-7.34, F-11.4 and F-18.6 Ti₄O₇ anodes, respectively, in comparison to the pristine Ti₄O₇ anode (Figure 2A), while the anodic potential increased slightly from 3.50 V for the pristine Ti₄O₇ anode to 3.61 V for the F-18.6 anode (Table 2).  Similar trends were observed for k_obs,PFOS and k_{obs,6:2 FTS}  (Figs. 2B and 2C) as well.  When the rate constants were normalized to the EESA, larger differences were seen between the pristine and fluorinated anodes.  For example, the k_SA,PFOA decreased by 45.0%, 82.5%, 89.2% and 92.4% on F-2.31, F-7.34, F-11.4 and F-18.6 Ti₄O₇ anodes, respectively, compared to the pristine Ti₄O₇ anode (Fig. 2D), and the trends of  k_SA,PFOS and k_{SA,6:2 FTS} were similar (Figs. 2E and 2F).  This suggests that the intrinsic reactivity of the Ti₄O₇ anode towards PFAS was reduced upon surface fluorination, while the reduction of performance was compensated for by the increased EESA of the anodes resulting from fluorination (Table 3).  Control experiments were performed in the same system with no current applied on pristine and F-18.6 Ti₄O₇ anodes.  The result indicates that adsorption of PFOA, PFOS and 6:2 FTS on both the pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes are minimal.

Table 2 - Current density and corresponding anodic potential on pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.

Table 3 - Total, outer and inner charge values and EESA of pristine and fluorinated Ti₄O₇ anodes.

4. References

1.  Richard L. Valentine and H.C.A. Wang, “Iron Oxide Surface Catalyzed Oxidation of Quinoline by Hydrogen Peroxide. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 124, 31-38 (1998)

5. Past project reports

1.  Introduction to Project R-122: Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (6), 13 (March 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Mar1.

2.  Quarter 1 (January-March 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 85 (12), 13 (September 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Sep1.

3.  Quarter 2 (April-June 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (3), 18 (December 2021); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF21Dec2.

4.  Quarter 3 (July-September 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (6), 16 (March 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Mar2.

5.  Quarter 4 (October-December 2021): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (9), 21 (June 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Jun2.

6.  Quarter 5 (January-March 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (12), 22 (September 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Sep2.

7.  Quarter 6 (April-June 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (3), 17 (December 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Dec1.

8.  Quarter 7 (July-September 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (6), 19 (March 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Mar2.

9.  Quarter 8 (October-December 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (9), 19 (June 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Jun1.

6. About the principal investigator

Qingguo (Jack) Huang is Professor in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin Campus.  He holds a B.S. in Environmental Science (1990) and a Ph.D. in Chemistry (1995) from Nanjing University, China as well as a Ph.D. in Environmenal Engineering from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.  Dr. Huang’s research interest focuses on catalysis involved in the environmental transformation of organic pollutants, and development of catalysis-based technology for pollution control and environmental remediation and management.  His laboratory has been actively involved in several cutting-edge research topics:

• Enzyme-based technology for water/wastewater treatment and soil remediation
• Electrochemical and reactive electrochemical membrane processes in wastewater treatment
• Catalysis in biofuel production and agro-ecosystem management
• Environmental fate and destructive treatment methods of PFASs
• Environmental application and implication of nanomaterials

He has published over 170 peer-reviewed journal articles, five book chapters and had six patents awarded.  He has taught three courses at the University Georgia: Introduction to Water Quality, Environmental Measurement and Advanced Instrumental Analysis in Environmental Studies.

Editor’s Note: For 2022, NASF-AESF Foundation Research Board has selected a project on electrodeposition toward developing low-cost and scalable manufacturing processes for hydrogen fuel cells and electrolysis cells for clean transportation and distributed power applications. This report covers the 4^th and 5^th quarters of work, from October 2022 to March 2023.  A printable PDF version of this report is available by clicking HERE.

1. Introduction

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are electrochemical devices that generate electricity by direct conversion of chemical energy of fuels (H₂, CO, CH₄, etc.) through electrochemical reactions. They have enormous potential for commercial applications given their high efficiency, high energy density and fuel flexibility.  In general, SOFCs consist of three major components, namely two porous composite electrodes, referred to as the fuel electrode (anode) and air electrode (cathode), and a dense electrolyte layer.  To serve this purpose, the nickel-yttria-stabilized zirconia (Ni-YSZ) has been found to be the most effective anode electrode for intermediate-temperature SOFCs that operate below 800°C.  Nickel is stable under reducing conditions and able to react as a catalyst to promote the fuel oxidation process. Furthermore, in amalgamation with the porous YSZ structure, Ni facilitates the conduction of oxide ions in the electrode component.  Thus, Ni-YSZ is preferred for use in single cell SOFC construction.

It is critical to choose the appropriate manufacturing method for producing the porous anode electrode.  The primary objective of the project, at this stage of work, is to determine a method for 3D printing 8 mol% yttria-stabilized zirconia (8YSZ) using Digital Light Processing (DLP), with the eventual goal of manufacturing an improved design for the anode supported flat tube SOFC.

2. Accomplishments

During the reporting period, efforts were focused on planning the overall project work.  We created a process flow for the 3D printing of 8YSZ ceramic parts, involving (1) photocurable slurry preparation, (2) DLP printing and sintering and (3) thermal analysis.  To that end, we identified the requirements for a printable and functional 8YSZ anode CAD model for porous 8 mol% yttria-stabilized zirconia as an anode-supported SOFC.  We established a parametric surface equation for the 8YSZ electrolyte contact surface, including a custom parameter relative to an increase in surface area, accounting for flexible surface geometry and including numerical calculation of the surface area.  We designed a preliminary 8YSZ anode CAD model using Creo Parametric CAD software**, resulting in an adaptable design with fully flexible dimensions and simplicity in fine-tuning and regenerating in model space.  This led to revised project requirements and the implementation of changes to the 8YSZ anode CAD model.  In  analyzing the surface area of CAD model in-workspace for various parameters, we produced rough estimates of relative surface area increases based on geometry.

3. Planned work

The primary objective of this project is to determine a method for printing 8YSZ using DLP, with the eventual goal of manufacturing an improved design for the anode supported flat tube SOFC.  Table 1 identifies some critical parameters for a successful project.

Table 1. Important properties to consider during each step of the process.

The student on this project analyzed the project and developed a personal plan for accomplishing the science of this research project.  Four personal objectives to accomplish this goal are identified below.  This is an iterative process, where previous steps may need to be revisited once knowledge is gained.

(1) Familiarize yourself with lab equipment, materials, and available resources.  Understand how to operate equipment, and the capabilities / limitations of equipment specific to the lab, primarily including the DLP printer, ball mill, tube furnace and sintering furnace.  Discuss with the PI and other lab members, read user manuals and informational documents.  Discern the specific properties of materials available in the lab, including 8YSZ, photocurable resin, and any necessary additives such as solvents, dispersants or pore formers, learn safety and general lab procedures to feel comfortable working independently and consider computational analysis tools, such as the COMSOL fuel cell module.***

(2) Prepare a printable 8YSZ resin slurry.  Formulate a detailed recipe, perform research and determine any knowledge gaps and predict any challenges or uncertainties in the process.  After approval of the resin slurry recipe by the PI, prepare in lab, record all procedures and results and consider if any further testing for slurry properties is necessary.

(3) Print and post-process 8YSZ resin slurry.  Determine all necessary print, debinding and sintering details via personal research.  Prepare final CAD model, considering the printing of multiple designs of the 8YSZ anode on a single build plate and converting Stereo  Lithography (STL) files using a slicer.  Print the slurry in the DLP printer, considering the quality of the green body print and recording all procedures and results.  Finally, clean, debind and sinter the green body, considering the quality of the sintered part, observing any cracking, and recording all procedures and results.

(4) Analyze and test the final product.  Determine the relevant material properties and standard testing procedures, with a focus on SOFC applications.  Classifications may include microstructure (porosity, pore size, grain size distribution), thermal and mechanical durability (mass loss in heating, energy absorbed when heating or cooling, strength, fracture toughness), electrochemical properties (ionic conductivity, activation energy).

4. Additional project details

4.1 Requirements for the 8YSZ anode CAD model

Create a 3D CAD model of a DLP printable 8YSZ anode, improving electrolyte and fuel channel contact area relative to the anode supported “flat-tubular SOFC” design.

The CAD model must have an electrolyte contact surface, interconnect contact surface, and lengthwise internal fuel channels.  The dimensions should be approximately 15 mm x 50 mm x 3 mm (width x length x height).

The active surface area for both the electrolyte contact surface and fuel channels must be increased relative to a flat surface.  The electrolyte contact surface should use oscillatory corrugations to increase relative surface area and fuel channels should use non-cylindrical paths to increase relative surface area.

The geometry and dimensions of the model must be manufacturable, using ceramic additive manufacturing (AM).  The design must be printable using an 8YSZ slurry in a DLP printer and must survive post-processing and sintering without cracks.  The cross-sectional wall thickness should be approximately 1 mm throughout.  Finally, the CAD model should have round edges, avoiding sharp edges and corners.

The CAD model should be stable in design, allowing for dimensions and features to be edited without issue.  Major dimensions should be input as Creo software parameters.  All other model features should be related to parameters using Creo relations or workspace constraints. 

The relative surface area increase should be simple to determine.  The electrolyte and fuel channel surfaces should use sine curves as the basis for increased surface area.  The entire electrolyte and fuel channel surfaces should be expressible by an equation, according to the following discussion.

4.2 Equation for the electrolyte contact surface

Relative increase in electrolyte surface area contact is achieved using two sine curves.  A flat x-y plane can be transformed using a sine curve in the x-z plane, where z is a function of x.  This creates peaks and troughs of the surface and is therefore referred to as the “corrugation” curve.  The surface area of the corrugated surface may further be increased using a sine curve in the x-y plane, where x is a function of y.  This creates the wave along the length of the peaks and troughs, and therefore is referred to as the “crosswave” curve.

This creates a pattern of wavy corrugations, as depicted in Fig. 1, which is modelled with a general parametric surface given in Equation (1).  This equation relates height position (z-axis) as a function of width position (x-axis) and length position (y-axis).  A_x and A_y express the amplitude of the corrugation and crosswave sine curves, respectively, while T_x and T_y express the periodicity of the corrugation and crosswave sine curves, respectively.

                             (1)

Figure 1 - Parametric surface of equation (1) (left) and bounded region of corrugation period by crosswave period (right).

The surface equation is especially useful as a tool for numerical calculation of relative surface area.  The double integral in Equation (2) gives the general formula for surface area in any flat rectangular region on the x-y plane.  Finding relative surface area increase is then simplified in Equation (3) by recognizing the repeating nature of the wavy corrugation pattern, where surface area in the region bounded by x = [0,T_x / 2π] and y = [0,T_y / 2π ] represents one full period of the corrugation and crosswave curve.  Assuming the full surface has a length and width that is modular of their respective sine curve periods, the relative surface area increase of the whole region is the same as the relative surface area increase for any other modular region.

 dx dy                        (2)

(3)  

4.3 Design parameters and dimensions of 8YSZ CAD model

The CAD model incorporates the above surface by sweeping the corrugation curve along the crosswave curve, maintaining constant normal direction.  The channels are also swept along the same crosswave curve and are centered at each peak of the electrolyte contact surface.  All dimensions of the model were defined with customization in mind.  Figure 2 illustrates a change in model parameters.  Figure 3 shows the latest iteration of this model after updating and improving problem definition.

Figure 2 - Changing the width and crosswave period parameters in the model workspace.

Figure 3 - CAD drawing with improved design of 8YSZ anode.

4.4 Approximated surface area as a function of design parameters.

Table 2 lists various possible configurations of surface parameters (amplitude and period of corrugation and crosswave curves) alongside the resultant relative surface area (SA) increase.  Surface area was measured directly in the Creo Parametric model space after editing and regenerating the model, then divided by the SA of a similar size flat surface (same width x length) to produce approximate results of the relative SA increase. The first row of results uses the dimensions shown in Fig. 3, while subsequent rows contain highlighted values to indicate a change from the first-row reference.

Table 2 - Example parameter configurations and their relative SA increase.

5. Past project reports

1. Quarter 1 (January-March 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (10), 17 (July 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Jul1 .

2. Quarter 2 (April-June 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (1), 17 (October 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Oct2 .

3. Quarter 3 (July-September 2022) Part I: Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (3), 17 (December 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Dec2.

4. Quarter 3 (July-September 2022) Part II: Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (4), 17 (January 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Jan1.

6. About the Principal Investigator for AESF Research Project #R-123

Majid Minary Jolandan is Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at The University of Texas at Dallas, in Richardson, Texas, in the Erik Jonsson School of Engineering.  His education includes B.S. Sharif University of Technology, Iran (1999-2003), M.S. University of Virginia (2003-2005), Ph.D. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2006-2010) as well as Postdoctoral fellow, Northwestern University (2010-2012).  From 2012-2021, he held various academic positions at The University of Texas at Dallas (UTD) and joined the Faculty at Arizona State University in August 2021.  In September 2022, he returned to UTD as Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering.  His research interests include additive manufacturing, advanced manufacturing and materials processing.

Early in his career, he received the Young Investigator Research Program grant from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research to design high-performance materials inspired by bone that can reinforce itself under high stress. This critical research can be used for aircraft and other defense applications, but also elucidates the understanding of bone diseases like osteoporosis.

In 2016, he earned the Junior Faculty Research Award as an Assistant Professor at the University of Texas-Dallas – Erik Jonsson School of Engineering.

Editor’s Note: The NASF-AESF Foundation Research Board selected a project on electrodeposition toward developing low-cost and scalable manufacturing processes for hydrogen fuel cells and electrolysis cells for clean transportation and distributed power applications. This report covers the 6^th quarter of work, from April to June 2023.  A printable PDF version of this report is available by clicking HERE.

1. Introduction

Hydrogen has been identified by the US government as a key energy option to enable full decarbonization of the energy system.¹  The US government has recently initiated a significant investment in the Hydrogen Economy, which is detailed in the recent “Road Map to a US Hydrogen Economy: reducing emissions and driving growth across the nation” report.  In June 2023, the first ever “US National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap” was published.²  On Nov. 15, 2021, President Biden signed the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL).  The BIL authorizes appropriations of $9.5B for clean hydrogen programs for the five-year period 2022-2026, including $1B for the Clean Hydrogen Electrolysis Program.  In alignment with the BIL and the mission of Hydrogen Energy “Earthshot” to reach the goal of $1 per 1 kg in 1 decade (“1 1 1”), the US is projected to invest in priority areas that will advance domestic manufacturing and recycling of clean hydrogen technologies.

Solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOECs) are energy storage units that produce storable hydrogen from electricity (more recently increasingly from renewable sources) and water (electrolysis of water).³  The majority (~95%) of the world’s hydrogen is produced by the steam methane reforming (SMR) process that releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.⁴  Electrolytic hydrogen (with no pollution) is more expensive compared to hydrogen produced using the SMR process.  Investments in manufacturing and process development and increasing production scale and industrialization will reduce the cost of electrolytic hydrogen.  Based on the recent DOE report, with the projected growth of the hydrogen market, the US electrolyzer capacity will have to increase by 20% compound annual growth from 2021 to 2050, with an annual manufacturing requirement of over 100 GW/yr.  Given the complex structure and stringent physical and functional requirements of SOECs, additive manufacturing (AM) has been proposed as one potential technological path to enable low-cost production of durable devices to achieve economies of scale, in conjunction with the ongoing effort on traditional manufacturing fronts.⁵  Recently (2022), the PI published an article on challenges and opportunities in AM of SOCs,⁵ in which a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in this field is presented.

In this work, we aim to contribute to such effect of national interest to enable the hydrogen economy through development of manufacturing processes for production of low cost, durable and high efficiency solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and SOECs.

2. Summary of Accomplishments (April-June 2023 Quarter)

In this period, we followed our work on 3D printing anode support for solid oxide fuel cells, SOFC (or cathode for solid oxide electrolyzers, SOEC) based on our designed optimization outlined in the previous report.  We are currently optimizing the printing parameters, binder burn out and sintering to obtain printed parts with desired geometry and properties.

3. Activity

Initially, we started the 3D printing using pure resin to examine the size of the samples, their arrangement on the build plate, and their geometry for the planned flexure experiment.  Figure 1 shows the results on printing pure resin.  Figures 1(A) and (B) show 3D printed flat tube design SOFCs with pure resin on the printed built plate.  Nine samples were printed at once.  Figure 1(C) presents optical images that show the channels inside the support (left) and the cross-section print that shows the profile of the channels inside (right).  Figures 1(D) thru (F) show various views of one of the samples on flexure test fixture.  Overall, the initial result with the resin shows that several samples (up to nine) can be printed simultaneously, and that the designed geometry is appropriate for the planned flexure experiment.

Figure 1 - (A) and (B): 3D printed flat tube design SOFCs with pure resin shown on the printed built plate; (C) Optical images showing the channels inside the support (L) and the cross-section print showing the profile of the channels inside (R); (D) thru (F): Various views of one of the samples on the flexure test fixture.

In the next step, we moved forward with printing ceramic-loaded photocurable resin, in this case, 3YSZ.  Since we use photopolymerization technique for 3D printing, the refractive index of the ceramic in the photocurable resin is an important factor.  Table 1 shows the refractive index of various ceramics.  The closer the refractive index of the ceramic material to the photocurable resin, the fewer the issues with refraction. 

Table 1 - Refractive index of various ceramics.

 For example, the refractive indices of alumina and silica are close to 1.5, and that is why these materials are rather straightforward in 3D printing by photopoly-merization.  On the other end of the spectrum, the refractive index of SiC is ~2.68 and it also absorbs the UV light of the printer, which makes it nearly impossible to be printed by photopolymerization.  For YSZ, yttria-stabilized zirconia, which is the material of relevance for SOFCs and SOECs, the refractive index is close to that of zirconia (~2.2), and there are significant issues with refraction. Hence,  we needed to optimize our printing parameters.

Figure 2 - Initial prints of 3YSZ ceramic.

Our initial prints were not successful, because of complications with the refractive index, which resulted in partial prints, or print layers failing to adhere to the build plate, instead of curing onto the vat film surface.  Mid-print layer adhesion also proved problematic (Fig. 2).

After a series of process parameter optimizations, we successfully resolved most of these issues and were successful in obtaining prints with good quality.  Figure 3 shows the first results on successful 3D printing of 3YSZ flat tube anode support concept.  Figure 3(A) is the green body as printed.  After printing, the resin in the print should be burnt off and then the remaining ceramic particles sintered to produce the final part.  The binder burnout and sintering steps are critical and require extensive optimization.  This is because, during binder burn out, volatile species are generated that must leave the part by diffusion.  

Figure 3 - (A) Green body 3D-printed 3YSZ anode support with integrated channels; (B) results of the first sintered samples.

If the burn out time-temperature profile is not optimized, the outgassing can generate delamination and cracks in the printed parts and compromise the integrity of the samples.  Similarly, the sintering step is critical to obtaining a ceramic material without any obvious defects or delamination.  Currently, we are working on optimization of the binder burn out and sintering processes.

4. References

1.  Achieving American Leadership in the Hydrogen Supply Chain, US Department of Energy, 2022.

2.  US National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap, US Department of Energy, 2023.

3.  A. Hauch, et al., “Recent advances in solid oxide cell technology for electrolysis,” Science, 370 (6513), p. eaba6118 (2020).

4.  Hydrogen Generation Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Systems Type (Merchant, Captive), By Technology (Steam Methane Reforming, Coal Gasification), By Application, By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2022-2030, Grand View Research, May 2022; https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/hydrogen-generation-market.

5.  M. Minary-Jolandan, “Formidable Challenges in Additive Manufacturing of Solid Oxide Electrolyzers (SOECs) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) for Electrolytic Hydrogen Economy toward Global Decarbonization,” Ceramics, 5, 761-779 (2022); DOI: 10.3390/ceramics5040055.

5. Past project reports

1. Quarter 1 (January-March 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 86 (10), 17 (July 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Jul1 .

2. Quarter 2 (April-June 2022): Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (1), 17 (October 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Oct2 .

3. Quarter 3 (July-September 2022) Part I: Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (3), 17 (December 2022); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF22Dec2.

4. Quarter 3 (July-September 2022) Part II: Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 87 (4), 17 (January 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Jan1.

5. Quarters 4-5 (October 2022-March 2023) Summary: NASF Report in Products Finishing; NASF Surface Technology White Papers, 88 (1), TBD (October 2023); Full paper: http://short.pfonline.com/NASF23Oct1.

6. About the Principal Investigator for AESF Research Project #R-123

Majid Minary Jolandan is Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at The University of Texas at Dallas, in Richardson, Texas, in the Erik Jonsson School of Engineering.  His education includes B.S. Sharif University of Technology, Iran (1999-2003), M.S. University of Virginia (2003-2005), Ph.D. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2006-2010) as well as Postdoctoral fellow, Northwestern University (2010-2012).  From 2012-2021, he held various academic positions at The University of Texas at Dallas (UTD) and joined the Faculty at Arizona State University in August 2021.  In September 2022, he returned to UTD as Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering.  His research interests include additive manufacturing, advanced manufacturing and materials processing.

Dr. Minary is an Associate Editor for the Journal of the American Ceramic Society, an Editorial Board member of Ceramics journal and the current chair of the materials processing technical committee of ASME.

Early in his career, he received the Young Investigator Research Program grant from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research to design high-performance materials inspired by bone that can reinforce itself under high stress. This critical research can be used for aircraft and other defense applications, but also elucidates the understanding of bone diseases like osteoporosis.  In 2016, he earned the Junior Faculty Research Award as an Assistant Professor at the University of Texas-Dallas – Erik Jonsson School of Engineering.

Aaron Halonen, Steelhead Technologies, delivers a presentation on “The Economics of Plant Software” at the NASF Palmetto Chapter’s Fall Conference.
Photo Credit: Products Finishing

The Palmetto Southeast Chapter (Greenville, S.C.) of the National Association for Surface Finishing (Washington, D.C.) recently held its 15^th annual fall technical conference. After several years of holding the conference at Myrtle Beach, the conference was held at Folly Beach, S.C. near Charleston.

The location wasn’t the only change for this year’s conference. The change in venue brought with it a focus on facility management and leadership. The programming for the 2023 installment of the event was geared toward business topics and understanding regulatory issues affecting the surface finishing community.

Presentations included a look at “The Economics of Plant Software” from Aaron Halonen of Steelhead Technologies, insights for “Preparing for Agency Inspections” from Heather Brinerhoff of All4 Inc., a discussion of “EPA Information Collection” with regard to the chrome finishing industry from Ethan Ware of William Mullen Law Firm, and an update on Washington D.C. policies affecting the finishing community from Christian Richter of the Policy Group. 

Palmetto Chapter president Staci Sorgee, general manager of Palmetto Plating Co. Inc. and conference educational director Adam Blakeley CEF, director of technical services for MacDermid Enthone Industrial Solutions indicated the event may return to the Folly Beach location in 2024.

Welcome to the February issue of Products Finishing — it always seems like February is when the new year really starts after the post-holiday reentry into the work schedule. Suddenly travel plans for the year are in the works, planning ramps up for Spring industry events and everyone gets plugged back into the business at hand. As we weigh our busy schedules and make our plans to attend one event or another, it’s important to remind ourselves that conferences and tradeshows are not just about networking and showcasing products, but are also they are also important opportunities for learning, collaboration, innovation and business growth. The evolving trends in manufacturing influence the work that finishing operations will see throughout the year and attending events is essential for staying ahead of the curve and moving your business forward.

Every business has to factor the expenses for such events into the cost of its business, yet sending members of your team — particularly newer hires — affords them the opportunity to benefit from the experience of industry leaders, innovators, experts and peers. This investment should be considered a crucial part of training your team and fostering their industry education. Your employees will gain new insights, reinforce best practices and learn about the latest developments. The panel discussions, seminars and workshops your team has access to at these events should be thought of as tools for discovering competitive advantages for your business, staying on top of the latest regulatory updates and keeping your business relevant in the ever-changing world of manufacturing.  

In addition, as consumers and OEMs place a growing focus on sustainability in manufacturing processes, surface finishers must continue to stay on top of the latest regulatory guidelines and explore eco-friendly solutions for their processes. Industry events offer a chance to learn about new sustainable approaches and alternative materials.

The new year promises many such opportunities. Here’s a quick look at just a few of the industry events on the horizon.

This year’s Powder Coating Week, scheduled for March 11 to 13 in Orlando, Florida, is the perfect opportunity for powder coating industry professionals to expand their knowledge and network with colleagues. The program, comprised of four separate events, offers the perfect combination of training, presentations, technical sessions, tabletop exhibits, roundtable discussions, expert panels and social activities. You can learn more about the event here: short.pfonline.com/pcw2024

ECOAT 2024 is scheduled for April 2-4 in Orlando, Florida. This biennial event is a wonderful opportunity for electrocoating professionals to connect and learn about the latest developments, or for those interested in adding ecoat to their offerings to learn about the technology.  In this issue, you’ll find a helpful preview to the event, complete with the full conference schedule and an overview of the networking opportunities the event has in store for attendees (see page 32).

For coaters looking further afield for the latest innovations and technologies, PaintExpo in Karlsruhe, Germany, will take place April 9-12. The event showcases the latest industrial coating innovations, applications, future technologies and trends. From the latest spray guns, equipment and materials to advances in automation technology, PaintExpo is a great way to get a global perspective of what’s happening in the industry. And if you can’t make the show, I’m excited to say that PF is planning to attend and report back with some of the highlights.

The Women in Finishing (WiF) FORUM will take place in Orlando April 15-17, featuring a variety of professional development and industry related sessions. Designed for women in industrial finishing-related careers from the shop floor to executive management, WiF covers everything from business strategies to the latest finishing industry trends.

Of course, later in the year, additional events are on the horizon including SUR/FIN (the National Association for Surface Finishing surface technology industry tradeshow, scheduled for June 5-7), the Parts Cleaning Conference at IMTS2024 on Sept. 10, and FABTECH (North America’s largest metal forming, fabricating, welding and finishing event, happening Oct. 15-17).

Education and networking are crucial components of your strategy for forwarding your business. The importance of opportunities to connect with clients, through leaders, industry experts and peers cannot be overstated. Fostering collaborations and relationships often leads to new opportunities, from securing business deals to gaining insights into processes or finding novel solutions for problems.

You can learn more about these industry events by visiting PF’s event calendar at pfonline.com/events. We hope to see you there!

In a departure from the usual technical paper content offered in this NASF Technical Papers section, we offer the first issue of the Society publication which would ultimately become NASF’s Plating & Surface Finishing, which ended in 2010.

In a departure from the usual technical paper content offered in this NASF Technical Papers section, we offer the first issue of the Society publication which would ultimately become NASF’s Plating & Surface Finishing, which ended in 2010.

In 1909, the roots of the technical educational arm of the NASF, the AESF Foundation, took shape as 60 Charter members met in New York to form the National Electro-Platers Association of the United States and Canada (NEPA).  NEPA grew and began publication of a Quarterly Review in 1910.  In 1913, NEPA reorganized itself, forming the American Electroplaters Society, and held its first “Annual Meeting of the Supreme Society” in New York.  This verbose name evolved into “the AES Annual Convention” and ultimately NASF SUR/FIN.

In 1914, at the Second Annual Meeting in Chicago, the AES was required by its Constitution to maintain a publication.  The Quarterly Review became the Monthly Review, in the form of a 6” x 9” paperbound booklet.  This name change was more than just a change in time interval, as it heralded the official AES technical publication and was designated as Volume 1, Number 1.  This numeration continued right up to 2010.

The Monthly Review continued regular publication through 1948, including the Great Depression and World War II.  In January 1948, changes came to the publication with the name change to Plating, including an increase in page size to the more familiar 8¼” x 11¼”.  Recognizing the growth and expansion of the industry beyond electroplating into other metal coating technologies, the journal name was changed to Plating & Surface Finishing in April 1975.

Over the years, preservation of the publication increased in importance.  At some point, the journal was microfilmed up to 1962 issues.  This collection was digitized and found its way into the Serials in Microfilm Collection, part of the Internet Archive (archive.org).

Significantly, the journal found its way into the HathiTrust Digital Library.  According to their website, “HathiTrust was founded in 2008 as a not-for-profit collaborative of academic and research libraries now preserving 18+ million digitized items in the HathiTrust Digital Library.  We offer reading access to the fullest extent allowable by U.S. and international copyright law, text and data mining tools for the entire corpus, and other emerging services based on the combined collection.”  It is administered by the University of Michigan.

Through this resource, we offer Volume 1, Number 1 of the AES Monthly Review.  Please note that the style of writing and speaking in 1914 was quite changed from today.  Most of the content dealt with the second “Annual Meeting of the Supreme Society”.  The articles are verbatim, as presented at the meeting, and to the reader of the 21^st century, the words are a little pompous, even a bit bombastic.  Note that “electro-plating,” with the hyphen, was the accepted spelling.  More ceremonial than we are accustomed to, the Table of Contents page shows a quote by Amiel, which was printed in every issue and read aloud at every meeting as the Society motto.  Much of the program was more social than technical, including the singing of “Auld Lang Syne” at the end of the banquet. 

The paper on pickling was perhaps the most scientific presentation in the program, but to our ears it might seem more art than science.  Such was the state of science in those days.  Nonetheless, this reprint captures the flavor of the times when the American Electro-Platers Society was starting to grow and the beginnings of technical publication in the electroplating field were forming.  With this in mind, we hope that you will enjoy reading Volume 1, Number 1.

Please Note: The page numbers in the Table of Contents shown here relate to the pages in the original edition.  A printable pdf copy of this version can be downloaded HERE.  A pdf of the original edition can be downloaded HERE.

Index

       PAGE

Editorial Staff                                                                         2

Editorial - The Chicago Convention                                    3

Greetings from the Supreme President                             4

Second Annual Convention of the American Electro-Platers’ Society       5

Notes of the Convention                                                      11

Good Fellowship                                                                    14

To Pickle or Not to Pickle                                                     16

He Who Renders Service Is Rewarded                              19

Future Possibilities                                                                21

Address to Bridgeport Branch                                              26

What the Branches are Doing                                               28

Editorial Staff

H.E. Willmore, Editor-in-Chief
5911 South Boulevard, Chicago, Illinois.

Associate Editors

Cor. J.H. Hansjosten, President Supreme Society

George B. Hogaboom, Past President Supreme Society

C.H. Proctor, Honorary Member Supreme Society.

Oscar E. Servis, President Chicago Branch.

Harry De Joannis, Bridgeport Branch

Fred J. Liscomb, Chicago Branch

Ernest Lamoureux, Chicago Branch

I shall pass through this world but once.  Any good thing, therefore, that I can do, or any kindness that I can show to any human being, let me do it now.  Let me neither defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again  - Amiel.

Editorial

The Chicago Convention

The Supreme officers of the American Electroplaters’ Society met in the annual convention in Chicago, June 4, 5 and 6.  Among the legislation enacted were several important amendments to the constitution.  It was also decided to combine the Bulletin and Quarterly Review, making a monthly publication to be known as the Monthly Review.

In no Secret or Fraternal organization does the feeling of friendship, good fellowship, brotherly love, helpfulness and sympathy prevail to a greater extent than among the members of the American Electroplaters’ Society, as was shown by the perfect harmony with which the business of the convention was transacted.

There are few platers who are possessed of an over-abundance of this world’s wealth; the capital of the electro-plater is mostly in his knowledge of his profession, and it is conceded that some are better versed in its intricacies than are others, yet the members of the A.E.S. are willing and even anxious to help those who have acquired their knowledge under disadvantages and ask no usurious interest on their capital.  Each individual member of this Society is working for greater proficiency in his profession.  He is striving to get out of the foggy valleys and is climbing the heights to the goal of perfection in his chosen vocation.

As a large part of this number of the Monthly Review is taken up by convention matters, the publication of some of the papers read and submitted must necessarily be deferred until the next issue.

The following papers will appear in the July number:

“The Plating of Non Conducting Surfaces.”

“Electro Galvanizing.”

“The Plater of Tomorrow.”

“Mechanical Plating.”

“A Plea for Standards in Electro-plating.”

Greetings from the Supreme President  -

Col. J. H. Hansjosten

The second annual convention of our Society was held and is now a matter of history.  The principal feature of it, next to the large attendance, was the harmony and enthusiasm that were always in evidence.

The delegates saw fit to elect the writer to the office of Supreme President and I am very grateful for the honor conferred on me.  I am, however, not unmindful of the responsibilities that were placed upon me with the office, and I beg to assure the members that I will endeavor to discharge the duties of the office in such a manner as to merit their approval.

I wish at this time to say a few words on some matters that are important to the welfare of the Society.

The real work of the Supreme Society will fall on the shoulders of your Supreme Secretary and Editor.  These two men will carry a heavy burden, and I ask every member to give them their fullest support and cooperation.  Both of them are men eminently qualified for the office they hold, and both of them are earnest laborers in the vineyard of our Society, and both of them are men who stand high in our profession.  The Secretaries of the various Branches are the men who can, more than any others, help Mr. Fraine and Mr. Willmore, by promptly sending in the reports of meetings and news items and other matters that they should be informed about.  Let them know that you appreciate their work, and you can do that in no better way than-by aiding them all in your power.

The year just past was a prosperous one for the Society, and it is the earnest wish of the new officers that the coming year warrants even a better report when we meet in Dayton next year.

The new branches were welcomed into the fold at the convention, and it is the hope of the officers and members, I am sure, that we will be able to extend a hearty welcome to more branches next year.  In this connection, I wish to inform you that one of our members, Mr. H.I. Ter Dost, Bowery St., Akron, Ohio, is working to organize a branch in Cleveland.  Anyone knowing any of the Cleveland platers is requested to communicate with Mr. Ter Dost and so aid him in forming Cleveland Branch.

In Grand Rapids the seed is also taking root.  Messrs. Allen and Miller, members of the Detroit branch, are stirring up the platers who are not yet awake.  There are a number of platers in Grand Rapids and vicinity who are eligible to membership, and a branch there should have a goodly number of members in a short time.

I am now taking up the matter of organizing a Branch Society in Toledo, Ohio, a city that has long had many plating establishments and where there are enough foreman platers to form a good branch.

I shall be glad to aid any of our members who may be working to form branches in their cities, and every city in which there is a sufficient number of foreman platers should have a Branch Society.

A Branch Society will bring the members in closer touch with each other and enable our members to get the most good out of the Society.  I shall be glad to be present at any time that my presence may be of benefit, or aid in the formation of a branch.  I have already promised Messrs. Allen and Miller to be in Grand Rapids when they can get together a sufficient number of platers to organize, and will be pleased to serve any branch or prospective branch in the West in that or any other way, and I herewith request our Past

President, Mr. George B. Hogaboom, and our founder, Mr. Chas. H. Proctor, to represent me in the East.  I know the gentlemen named will do all they can to further the Society as their acts in the past abundantly prove.

In conclusion let me say that it is with some misgivings that I take up the duties of my office, but I shall give you the best there is in me, and by adhering to the precepts for which our Society stands, and following closely in the footsteps of my illustrious predecessors, I hope to merit from you, a year hence, when I retire from office, “Well done, good and faithful servant.”

Second Annual Convention of the American Electroplaters’ Society

Thursday, June 4

The Second Annual Convention of the American Electro-Platers’ Society was held at the Fort Dearborn Hotel, Chicago, Ill., June 4, 5, 6.  Delegates representing the various branches were present at the opening session, which was called to order at 10 AM, Thursday, with Supreme President Geo. B. Hogaboom in the chair.

The President: Gentlemen, through the authority imposed upon me as being Supreme President of the American Electro-Platers’ Society, it gives me great pleasure to call to order the Second Annual Convention of the American Electro-Platers’ Society.  The Chicago branch, to whom we are indebted for this pleasure, deserves much credit for what has been done, and to which we will turn the morning’s session over to their program entirely leaving to the afternoon session the beginning of the regular business of the Society.  Mr. Hansjosten, being Vice-President, and Mr. Servis, being the President of the Chicago branch, we will now turn over the morning’s session entirely to their pleasure.

Mr. Servis: In behalf of the Chicago Branch I bid you to accept our sincere and hearty welcome.  You have come from near and far to attend this second convention of the American Electro-Platers’ Society and I dare say that never before in the history of this Society nor in the history of the world has such a numerous and splendid gathering of electro-platers taken place, displaying the growing interest and great success of our organization.  We are proud to have with us some of the founders of this Society and to be able to shake them by the hand and truthfully say: “Well done, good and faithful servants.”  Wonderful are the strides that our Society has made, but greater the possibilities of its future.  The curtain of obscurity has been raised; the burden of the plater lightened by the knowledge that he is playing an important part in the science of chemistry and electricity.

Now let us join in mutual friendship seeking that goal of knowledge that will bring fruits for our labors and will not only make us better friends, but better platers and I trust that none of you will return to your field of endeavor without feeling that this great gathering has amply repaid you for your devotion to the cause and that it has not been in vain.  I thank you.

Gentlemen, we have with us what we term in the Chicago Branch our War Horse.  If you don’t believe me, we will shortly demonstrate it, I assure you.  I take great pleasure in introducing Colonel J. H. Hansjosten, the first Vice-President of the Supreme Branch. (Applause.)

Col Hansjosten: Mr. President, and Gentlemen: Mr. Servis says I am a war horse.  I am glad he did not say anything about the dog.  The uninitiated will undoubtedly know what I mean by that before this convention is over.  In the name of the Chicago Branch, gentlemen, I bid you welcome.

You are welcome.  It would be hard for me to tell you how much we mean it, but we welcome you with all our hearts.  We are proud to be your hosts and we hope to prove to you before you leave us how much we appreciate having you with us, how much we appreciate the honor conferred on Chicago Brench when it was selected to entertain the convention of 1914.

The year since the last convention has sped by so swiftly that it seems but yesterday, we met in historic old New York to begin erecting the superstructure on the foundations laid by the men who founded our Society six short years ago.  How well they laid the foundation on which our great Society is being built can be seen

by this gathering of men from practically every part of our country - here present solely to consider plans by which future building of the Society will be guided.

You, gentlemen, are living proof that the efforts of the men who conceived the Society have not been in vain and we welcome you as fellow-workers in the cause for which our Society stands - the cause of education.  We welcome you because you are fellow-platers, because you have the same problems to solve, the same difficulties to overcome as ourselves.  Between us there is a bond of friendship, a bond of brotherhood, that is strengthened by our Society and that our Society has brought to light as nothing else ever has or could.

Chicago branch has always welcomed all visiting members of other branches and has always considered it an honor and a pleasure to have a member from another branch pay it a visit, and it is impossible for me to tell you how much pleasure we gain by having you with us, how honored we feel to be your hosts.  There are so many things in this world that we desire and so few attain.  I have sometimes felt that desire, but never so much as at this moment, and what I now most desire is to have the command of language that a [Noah] Webster or a [William Jennings] Bryan has that I might give adequate expression to the feeling in the hearts of every one of us, a feeling of welcome, a feeling of friendship for you our honored guests.

The work you have to do during the next three days is hard and important, important to the future welfare of our Society.  We know you will do it, so the future historians of our Society will be proud to relate your acts; and the men who will come after us will thank you for what you have done and will say, “You have builded well.”  We welcome you here to make history, to do the work.  Your branches have entrusted you to come here and do, and we know you will do it right, and while you are doing it we welcome you to all we have.  You are welcome to our hearts, you are welcome to our homes, and you are welcome to that which every man values more than all else in the world - our love and our friendship.  Gentlemen, you are welcome. (Applause.)

Mr. Servis: After the war horses we get the silver tongued orator, and I assure you that it gives me great pleasure personally to take Mr. Hogaboom by the hand and say, “I am glad to meet you.”  I take great pleasure in introducing the Supreme President, George B. Hogaboom.

Mr. Hogaboom: Mr. President of the Chicago Branch and Members: Mr. Servis introduced Col. Hansjosten as a war horse, and in looking around I think we have got a whole cavalry of war horses.  The pleasure is all ours to be able to come to such a large and progressive city as Chicago and be able to be welcomed, or to have the pleasure of being welcomed by such a progressive branch as the Chicago Branch, is a pleasure even beyond the expression of words.  In shaking the hands of those whom we have met, we have felt that there is more behind it than mere acquaintance.  We have felt that behind it was the whole heart, the whole soul of the men whose hands we were shaking.  We know that we have come to a place where we will receive and have received the full open-heartedness of the West.  We have received the noted hospitality and we have been given a royal welcome.  To say that we are gratified but poorly expresses our feelings.  We have been deeply impressed by the beginning and we know that before the convention is at an end, we will be all Chicago.  It is unnecessary to state that our pleasure is to see the number that is represented by the different branches of the Society here.  We have nearly every branch in the organization represented.  Such a difference from the small beginning of a little over a year ago.  A year ago, we had seven societies, probably we could count eight, but the eighth society, St. Louis, had not as yet received their permanent charter; and while they came in with us and were represented, still we feel that the seven were really the beginning of the Supreme Society.  We have grown wonderfully more than any other body of its kind.  We have grown 100 per cent in branch organizations in one year.  Instead of having seven branch organizations we have fourteen, a remarkable progress, remarkable from more than one standpoint because we are a society based upon entirely different principles from that of any other organization in which a laboring man is associated.  We are not a labor organization, as the word labor organization goes, and still, we are.  We are not a scientific society as the interpretation of the word scientific society goes, but still, we are scientific.  We are both - we are a combination of labor and science.  We are not represented by men who earn their living by the sweat of their brow, by just their human efforts alone, but are represented by men who earn their living by the brains which they possess - brawn and brains are brought into so close relationship that they are in the electro-plater a unit.  Much more so than any other branch of industry.  We hold a unique place in the history of organizations of men who toil for their labor.  Our prime object is education, a grander and more noble object could never be conceived.  Instead of trying to help the men and bring the men up into the world by force, we are creating an individual spirit, trying to better the man himself so that his position in life will be bettered, and he will make not only himself better but make his fellow man better for having lived in this world.  This is a noble aspiration and one in which this Society is taking the lead in organizations of its kind in the country.  We have not received the publicity, the recognition that we should receive, but our aims, our motto and our efforts are understood by the world; believe me, we will be heralded in the coming ages or in the coming decade.  No doubt the basis, the principles upon which this Society was organized, will be brought out by sociologists and by those welfare workers that are endeavoring to better the condition of the laboring man.

Col. Hansjosten, Mr. Servis and the Chicago Branch, we more than appreciate the honor of meeting in Chicago.  We more than appreciate the many courtesies you have already extended to us and from the program that you have so finely brought out and given to us and from the provisions that you have made for our entertainment, we will be deeply indebted to you.  And we thoroughly go into this convention with our hearts full of fraternity, full of love for our fellow workers and our fellow men.  We are glad we are with you. (Applause.)

Mr. Servis: While the following gentleman that I am going to call on is not on the program, it is a matter of courtesy and a debt that we owe to the distinguished gentleman that I believe we ought to know, a gentleman that was the forerunner of the Society, a gentleman who has done everything in his power, sacrificing many things, to make it what it is.  I take great pleasure in introducing Mr. Charles H. Proctor of New York. (Applause.)

Mr. Proctor: Mr. President of the Chicago Branch and the officers of the supreme body, also the members we have present and the visitors: I am sure it gives me great pleasure to be able to be with you on this auspicious occasion, to realize that in the space of two years we have drifted more than half way across this continent with our second convention, and that the initial, the introduction of the American Electro-Platers’ Society, was not in vain.  In the space of two years, we come here with the delegates of fourteen branch societies of the American Electro-Platers’ Society.  That proves to you what it is possible to accomplish when we have one unity of purpose and that unity of purpose is equality and brotherly love and friendship, and to do everything that lays within our moral power to assist and to help our brothers of the craft to a higher realization, to a higher accomplishment in their profession.  I am sure that at different times when I have been here in your city I have felt that friendly hand, not only one hand has been extended towards me, but both hands in that grasp of brotherly friendship, and I am sure that before you go away from here as I have also felt that influence of the Chicago Branch you will feel that same influence also and not only will you go from here with more enthusiasm for the work that we are trying to accomplish, but you will go back to each one of your branches and prove that in the second convention you have made it a bright and shining light for the future of the American Electro-Platers’ Society.  I thank you.

Presidents of the various branches being called upon made short speeches, which consisted mostly of compliments for the Chicago Branch on the efforts they had made for the entertainment of the delegates and visitors to the convention.

The President: One of the first things I think we shall do will be to introduce ourselves.  Every person present will please arise, tell who he is, where he is from, and by whom employed.

Members then introduce themselves by announcing their respective names, branch from which they came, and firms by whom employed.

In the absence of the supreme secretary, Mr. Walter Fraine was appointed temporary secretary for the convention.

An adjournment was then taken until 1:30 PM.

At the afternoon session the minutes of the previous convention, held in New York, February 22 and 23, 1913, were read and approved.  After which the supreme officers read their reports.  Several amendments to the constitution were read and adopted at this session after much spirited discussion.

The evening session was devoted to the reading and discussion of papers, some of which appear in this issue.

Evening Session: 8:00 PM Papers:

“The Production of Silver Deposit Work” - G. B. Hogaboom, Newark Branch.

“To Pickle or Not to Pickle’ - J. H. Hansjosten, Chicago Branch.

“Standardization” - R. Davenport, Detroit Branch.

“He Who Renders Service Is Rewarded” - L. Schmidt, Chicago Branch.

Friday, June 5

Meeting called to order at 9 AM.

A further discussion and adoption of amendments to the constitution was held, and a committee appointed to reconstruct the constitution consisting of J.E. Sterling, Thos. B. Haddow and H.H. Smith.

At the afternoon session the election of Supreme Officers was held, and resulted as follows:

J.H. Hansjosten, Supreme President.

W.S. Barrows, First Vice-President.

H.H. Williams, Second Vice-President.

Walter Fraine, Secretary.

H.E. Willmore, Editor.

Dayton, Ohio, was selected as the meeting place for the 1915 convention.

Evening Session: 8:00 PM Papers:

“Visiting a Modern Plant” - J. Birnbaum, Milwaukee Branch.

“Electro-Galvanizing’ - L. Schmidt, Chicago Branch.

“Talk on Current Regulation” - S. Huenerfauth, Chicago Branch.

“Talk on Deposition of Lead” - L. Schulte, Chicago Branch.

“The Plater of Tomorrow” - H.J. Ter Doest, New York Branch.

Saturday, June 6

The morning was devoted to visiting various plants throughout the city in which the delegates were interested.  In the afternoon the delegates and visiting members were taken on an automobile tour of Chicago boulevard and park system, the trip covering sixty-eight miles.  Returning to the Fort Dearborn hotel, a short session was held, and honorary members of the Supreme Society were elected as follows:

Chas. A. Proctor, founder of the Society;

Dr. E.S. Smith, University of Pennsylvania;

Dr. Oliver P. Watts, University of Wisconsin;

W. Lash Miller, University of Toronto;

Prof. C.F. Burgess, Prof. Joseph W. Richards, of Lehigh University;

Dr. Bancroft of Cornell University;

and Dr. Edward Kunz, gem expert of Tiffany’s, Newark, New Jersey.

Following the luncheon given by the Chicago Branch, Mr. Chas. H. Proctor installed the newly elected officers, after which the following program was carried out:

Overture - “Poet and Peasant”                Suppé                           Fisher Orchestra

Address                                                Col. J. H. Hansjosten            Chicago Branch

Songs                                                   Selected                       Whittier Quartette

Future Possibilities                                 Herbert J. Hawkins            Detroit Branch

Magic Wonders                                     F.C. Cyrex                    Dayton Branch

“Humoresque”                                       Dvorak                          Fisher Orchestra

Good Fellowship                                    Chas. H. Proctor            New York Branch

In unison -

Auld Lang Syne

Should old acquaintance be forgot 
And never bro’t to mind!
Should old acquaintance be forgot
And days of auld lang syne?

Chorus

For auld lang syne, my dear,
For auld lang syne,
We take a cup o’ kindness yet
For auld lang syne.

And here’s a hand, my trusty frien’ -  
And gie’s a hand of thine.
We'll take a cup o’ kindness yet
For auld lang syne.

Convention Committee

S. Huenerfauth

E. Lamoureux

H.E. Willmore

Q.E. Servis

J.F. Carr

J.P. Manz

L.J. Liscomb

Reception Committee

Wm. G. Bott

L. Schulte

W.M. Baldwin

Chas. Stopper

H.H. Posbeck

Notes of the Convention

Mr. Geo. B. Hogaboom’s excellent talk on the “Production of Silver Deposit Work” was illustrated by a number of glass articles showing the different stages through which this work passes to completion.  These samples were passed to the members present for examination, all being greatly interested.

In a lengthy discussion following the reading by Col. Hansjosten of his valuable paper, “To Pickle or Not to Pickle,” he gave as a good pickle for gray iron castings the following formula:

Sulphuric Acid 40%

Hydrofluoric Acid 10%

Water 50%

Every convention has its slogan, and the A.E.S. was no exception to the rule. “The Largest in the World” was adopted at the opening session by every member present claiming that the firm by which he was employed was the largest in the world manufacturing their particular class of goods.

Mr. H.E. Starrett, sales manager of the western division of the Hanson & Van Winkle Co. entertained the delegates to the convention by a noonday luncheon at the Hardware Club, Friday, June 5.  Mr. Starrett is the perfect host, and those fortunate enough to be present enjoyed the many reminiscences recited by that gentleman and responded to by many of his guests.

The National Cash Register Co. of Dayton, Ohio, exhibited their latest model cash register, and a number of name plates in various finishes, the work of Walter Fraine.

The Oliver Typewriter Co. was represented by one of their machines finished in black nickel.  An excellent sample of this work.

Mr. Leo Schmidt had a beautiful collection of hardware finishes on exhibition.  He also read two papers before the convention.

Mr. J.H. Hall showed a large collection of medallions finished in a variety of shades of gold and colored bronzes, which attracted considerable attention.

Mr. Thos. B. Haddow was highly complimented on his colored finishes, which showed superior workmanship.

Mr. H.J. TerDoest of Akron, Ohio, added to the exhibition a number of fishhooks ranging in size from the schoolboy bent pin to some large enough to hook a whale, all in various finishes.

The Keeler Brass Co., Grand Rapids, Mich., showed samples of furniture hardware finished by Messrs. Carl Stimson and W.G. Allen in English burnt brass, oxidized copper and brass, mercerized gold, oxidized silver; also brass articles finished by the steel ball process.

Dayton, Ohio, was selected for the Third Annual Convention, due to the strong appeal made by Walter Fraine of that city.

E. “Absolutely” Lamoureux, of the Chicago Branch, was “on the job” every minute, early and late, looking after the entertainment and comfort of the delegates and visiting members.  Mr. Lamoureux was largely instrumental in the formation of the Chicago Branch two years ago and has always worked hard and diligently in its interests.  He is the western representative of the Munning-Loeb Co.

One interesting exhibit was that of E.W. Weil, St. Louis, Mo., consisting of a nickel plated lamp bowl with a seven-hour deposit, cathode rotating at 200 revolutions per minute.

Delegates to the Convention

NEW YORK -                George B. Hogaboom, John E. Sterling, Thomas B. Haddow.

CHICAGO -                   J. H. Hansjosten, Oscar E. Servis, H.E. Willmore.

PHILADELPHIA -           Oscar E. Servis, Proxy.

NEWARK -                    Horace H. Smith.

DAYTON -                     Walter Fraine, A. Lamoureux, C. Van Derau.

ROCHESTER -              C. V. Hering.

DETROIT -                    Arthur O’Keefe, John Schultz.

ST. LOUIS -                  E.J. Musick, H.H. Williams, John T. McCarthy.

CINCINNATI -               Thomas Whitehead.

MILWAUKEE -              Edward Wiman.

INDIANAPOLIS -           James Walsh.

TORONTO -                  W.S. Barrows.

Fort Dearborn Hotel, Where the Convention was held.

Good Fellowship *

by Chas. H. Proctor

Mr. President, Members and Guests of the Second Annual Convention of the American Electro-Platers’ Society:

It affords me great pleasure to say a few words to you in these closing hours of the Second Annual Convention of the Society.  It is with a feeling of just pride to be able to congratulate Chicago Branch for the very able and efficient manner in which they have conducted and carried out every detail of the convention.  To the committee of arrangements, I am sure every visiting member of the Society adds their sincere thanks for the splendid time afforded them and the delegates will, I am sure, carry with them the memories of the hospitality of Chicago Branch; for the friendly and fraternal spirit shown me on every hand, for that good fellowship that exists which will prove an enduring bond of good will between Chicago and her sister branches of the Society augurs well for the future of the American Electro-Platers’ Society.

It is with a sincere hope that the spirit of good fellowship imbued here in your great city by each one of the visitors present, will be carried back to his city and Branch, so that the enthusiasm will be contagious and the spirit of fraternalism, the spirit of friendship, the spirit of good fellowship, will be continuous and every member in every part of this great country of ours as well as the members of the craft outside the sphere of our influence will awaken to the greater realization, the greater possibilities of membership in the American Electro-Platers’ Society.

And as we look back and realize the importance of this the Second Annual Convention, the slogan of your city “I Will,” will stand out as a bright and shining light and guide us onward to greater efforts for the benefit of the craft.

To the newly elected members of the Supreme Body, I pledge my loyalty and support and I feel sure that the same spirit of good will is thus extended by every member present here this evening and will be extended to you in the spirit of good fellowship by every member of the Society in every branch throughout your sphere of influence and may your work for the coming year be crowned with success.  May it be said of all of you when your terms of offices expire in the Third Annual Convention, that you did your work nobly and well, and through your united efforts the scope of the Society will enlarge, the sphere of influence extend, and that Branches will increase in numbers until they extend to the Pacific ocean, even as our membership extends today.

As the time is limited and I do not desire to take up too much time of this enjoyable evening, I want to say a few words in reference to good fellowship, which should be the cardinal principal of our Society.

What is good fellowship?  It is the true brotherhood of man, it is the divine command, it is the great secret of eternal life.

“Love you one another, do unto others as you would that others would do unto you,” these sentences are the very essence of good fellowship.  The hand that is extended to you when life seems dark and drear, when a turmoil seems to be in the very atmosphere, when trouble reigns supreme, when life seems to have lost its sunshine and only the darkness seems to envelop you on every hand, when that glad hand of good fellowship is extended to you and the words of comfort are whispered to you and they say, my brother you are in trouble, let me help you, let me assist you over your difficulties, I know I can, just tell me what the trouble is.  It may be only a few words of advice, a few words of good cheer or consolation, may be on very rare occasions a little financial assistance, but it lifts the burden when these tokens of good fellowship are extended; the clouds part, the darkness is dispelled, and once more the roseate gleams of sunshine break through the darkness of despair and we feel the influence of that divine spirit, which, like one touch of nature, makes the whole world akin.

Somewhere at some time in our life we have all felt that need of good fellowship, probably every one of our members at some time or another have felt the need of that friendly word of advice, of that mutual assistance when troubles have multiplied in our plating rooms.  Oftentimes when sorrow has almost overcome us, due to other forces beyond our control, to have someone offer us a friendly word of advice, of encouragement, of assistance, would lift the burden from our shoulders, make the difficulties seem lighter.  This is what our Society stands for, to be able to go to a brother member and if you need assistance or advice the hand of good fellowship will be extended to you, the good advice given, the mutual assistance extended to you not only the individual hand, but the hands of every member of the Society from North, South, East and West.  This is good fellowship, this is what our Society should and must stand for.  Every man who would shirk this duty is not a true member of our Society, he is only one of its numbers, he is not a true member of the craft.  He has not learned the divine command that it is more blessed to give than receive, but may we all feel that ennobling influence that will make us better men and better members of our Society. May the true meaning of good fellowship grow upon us so that we may unite one with each other in the common bond of good fellowship based upon equality.

Unfortunately, in a distant part of our country, from this city in one of our branches there has crept into its ranks, into hearts of its members, that feeling of imperialism, that feeling of what I may term un-Americanism, because they are a little more proficient in their adopted profession than the majority of the other members of the branch.  They deem it beneath their dignity to retain their membership in the Society, because some of the members, who are perhaps more unfortunate than the others, in so much as not having had the good fortune to acquire as much knowledge of the art as the gentlemen referred to, are asked once in a while for a little assistance to overcome the troubles from which no plating room is free; they are not willing to extend the hand of good fellowship, the friendly word of advice or assistance, for which the Society stands.

To such members, I say leave us if you refuse to extend the hand of good fellowship to speak the word of friendly advice and encouragement to your brother members.  The spirit of goodwill, the divine spark of brotherhood does not exist in your heart, the Society is better without you as its votaries.  Go hence and first learn the divine command that you love one another.  To you, my brothers, give proof of that good fellowship in your everyday life, do what you can to lighten the burdens of your brother members, do what you can to bring sunshine into everyone you meet.  You will feel better, you will be a better man, a better citizen. You will play your true part in life, and then at the end, when your nerveless fingers shall loosen their grasps upon the switchboard lever and life’s circuit is forever broken and through your closed eyes henceforth the solution of life’s great drama will unfold before you, may it be said by your fellow members that still remain upon this side of infinite space: He was one of Nature’s Noblemen.  He was a prince of a good fellow.

*Read at the Second Annual Convention, June 6, 1914.

To Pickle Or Not to Pickle *

by Col. J. H. Hansjosten

So much has been said and written on the subject of pickling or not pickling of stove casting during the past year, both for pickling and against pickling, with the majority, probably, in favor of no pickling.  I have been pleased to see so much interest taken in this subject by the members of our Society, and I was particularly interested in the able articles on this, to the plater in the stove factory, very important process, by several of our members throughout the country.  A number of them are opposed to pickling castings and the reasons they advance for taking this stand are good and valid.  One article that touches on this subject appeared in print last winter, but I do not think the points he makes against pickling are as good as some others that have recently been made against pickling.

Now you may say, gentlemen, that it is easy to criticize, and I admit that it is, and because it is so easy, is, perhaps, the reason why so many of us are such expert critics.  I am, however, going to criticize freely tonight, not because I am naturally a crab, for I have taken the advice of one of our prominent members, which is, “Don’t be a crab,” but I want to simply blaze the trail, and I hope our members will follow and hand it back to me as generously as I give it.  I am in hearty accord with what President Hogaboom expressed in an editorial in the Review some time ago, in which he suggested that the articles written in the Review be commented on and criticized by the members.  No man is ever hurt by fair criticism, and it may often aid him in seeing a different angle of a proposition that will greatly benefit him.

Let me say then, that I do not expect this address to add anything valuable to our store of knowledge, nor do I expect it, in itself, to benefit our members, but if it will open the door for future discussion of articles published in our Review, it shall have finished the journey on which I am sending it.

Now, as I said before, many of our members are opposed to pickling.  Well, so am I.  I am also opposed to numerous other things, but I am forced to put up with them by circumstances not under my control.  I do not believe any plater would pickle castings if they were soft enough to polish without pickling, or if the sand could be removed from the background without being first loosened in the pickling.  I am frank to say that I consider the pickle a necessary evil, and I as frankly admit that I have seen castings that could be polished without pickling as economically as others that were pickled, and the plater, who gets his castings so that he can roast the poor fellow who must pickle, is a fortunate human, and should mingle just a little pity with his roasts, instead of handing all the pity to the fellow who does the pickling, and who probably is perfectly satisfied with his job and considers pickling quite as much a profession as some of us consider plating.  By the way, the pickler who comes to my mind as I write this, is at this moment working within ninety-six feet of where I am writing.  In order to find out, for my own satisfaction, if pickling was the awful death-dealing monster that it was pictured to be, by one of our members quite recently, I asked my friend, the pickler, if he was able to get any insurance.  I was told “sure.”  I found that he is rounding out his seventh year as the official pickler in our plant.  His insurance is carried in an old line company and a fraternal order, and one policy was taken out eleven years ago while he was pickling in “Joisey.”

I might add here that our pickling tank is set low and is covered with an exhaust hood that carries away every particle of fumes from the acid.

But I have wandered just a little from my path.

The first and only reason for pickling any gray iron castings is to remove the hard scale from the surface and the sand from the background of it.  The scale is removed because it makes the surface of the casting so hard that too much labor and material are required to polish it, and if any sand remains in the background or depressions of the casting, it shows up after plating as unsightly black spots.  To demonstrate how much more expensive it would be to polish castings without pickling, I made a test with the following results.  Twenty-four castings were taken from the mill room, all made by the same molder on the same day; each alternate casting was pickled, the others were not; but conditions were alike in all and a fair test was made. The polishing cost for the castings not pickled was 13¼¢ for emery and blue; 36¢ for labor.  The polishing cost for the pickled castings was 9½¢ tor emery and blue and 24¢ for labor.  Three tests were made at three different times; the same style casting was used in each test.  The cost for the casting not pickled in the three tests was as follows: Emery and blue 39¼¢; polishing labor, $1.06.  For the pickled casting the cost was as follows: Emery and glue, 28¢; polishing labor, 72¢; the cost of pickling was estimated at 10¢, and it is probably very much lower than that figure, as several hundred of the castings mentioned were pickled in an hour.  These castings were made in a jobbing foundry and were very hard; so hard, in fact, that I am sure even our most strenuous opponents of pickling would have prayed for a very elastic conscience to permit them to stretch it enough to overcome their scruples against pickling.

I claim that whether to pickle or not to pickle is not a matter of choice or a matter of taste, but purely a matter of expedience or a case of necessity.  It surely would be folly and a waste of time and money to pickle any castings that could be prepared for plating, just as economically, without pickling.

In a factory where the plating and polishing departments are under separate heads it is easy for the plater to maintain that castings should not be pickled, for his responsibility begins and ends in the plating room, but where one man is in charge of both departments, and is responsible for the work from the mill room to the stock room, the matter of cost becomes a mighty important factor; for what does it profit him if he has costs reduced to a minimum in one department when either of the others more than eat the savings made in one.  It is a case of being ever on the lookout to keep costs down in every department, particularly today, when every detail of cost is figured on a scientific basis.

We must not think that science in plating is the only thing necessary to make us perfect platers, but we should learn to figure costs in everything that pertains to our profession; and I consider the polishing and buffing departments quite as capable of being scientifically managed as the plating room.  I venture the assertion that 90% of the gentlemen here tonight have charge of polishing and buffing departments as well as plating departments.

Hence it is just as important to have castings so that they can be polished with the lowest possible labor and material cost as it is to plate them at the lowest possible cost; and it is just as important that the nickel deposit will be soft enough so that the buffing labor and material cost may be kept at the minimum.  And if pickling castings will be an economy, it simply becomes a matter of business to pickle, and choice and taste are not to be considered.  The many objections advanced against pickling are in many cases good, but until such a time when we can get castings soft enough to do away with pickling, or get a sandblast that will be as economical and do the work as well, some of us, whether we will or no, will, as a matter of economy, be compelled to stick to the pickle; even if we rend the very heartstrings of some of our brother platers who shed crocodile tears when they think of the poor pickler whom they picture in such a woe begone condition that some of us who must pickle have pangs of conscience whenever we see a carboy.

Perhaps the greatest objections, or rather the objections most frequently advanced against pickling, is the effect it has on the plating solution.  That there is much that can be said on this phase cannot be denied, for carelessness in this respect is bound to cause trouble.  But this is something that can be avoided.  You can, if you are careless, carry cyanide into your nickel solutions and you can get too much acid in them by means of pickled castings, but you would not condemn the cyanide dip on that account, and it would be just as reasonable to condemn pickling for the same reason.

The pickling of gray iron castings will simply remain a matter of expedience, and the plater who has the interest of his firm at heart will pickle his castings just as soon as he can see that pickling is an economy.  The objections of the opponents of pickling to the contrary notwithstanding.

*Read before the Second Annual Convention at Chicago, June 4, 1914.

He Who Renders Service Is Rewarded *

by Leonard Schmidt

When I first learned that some of the more progressive platers in and around New York city had formed themselves into a society, and that a branch was about to be formed in this city, I can assure you that it was welcome news to me, as I had been waiting for several years for something of this kind to happen.

When I saw a copy of the first Quarterly Review and had an opportunity to carefully read the matter that it contained, I was more than ever impressed with the possibilities that lay before the platers of the United States through mutual co-operation.  This first number struck me as being just the best little paper ever, and the formulas and papers were so written that it did not require a professor to understand them.

About this time, I met Mr. Liscomb, who seemed to be carrying the burden of the proposed Chicago Branch on his shoulders and just to relieve him of some of this burden I asked him if he happened to have an application blank with him or could send me one, that I would certainly sign up, and the first meeting would find me on hand like the first robins of the good old springtime.

Much credit is due to the gentlemen from the East who have been instrumental in bringing this organization up to its present success.  We greet them with pleasure and are glad to have this opportunity to shake hands with them.  There is no question but what an exchange of experiences such as we get through these meetings will result in mutual benefit.

When Mr. Hansjosten, our worthy ex-President, returned from the New York Convention and informed me that the next annual convention of this Society was to be held in Chicago on June 6th, I was overjoyed, and am sure that we of this Branch were all equally pleased.

When the newly-elected president of the Chicago Branch asked me to make up a line of samples, I felt that I was “up against it,” as in the shop where I am at present employed, we have no material or facilities for samples such as you would be interested in.  But where there’s a will there’s a way, even though it means

work and worry to get out pleasing samples.  You will appreciate some of my difficulties when I say that my first trouble was to find a suitable sample.  As I said before, we had nothing in my own shop that could be used.  I happened to think of a model maker that I knew and found that he was willing to help me out by making a model of a fancy design that I had selected.  My next trouble was to find a foundry that could cast them for me.  The first one was so porous and spongy that it was useless; the next was no better, and after other foundrymen informed me that it was “jewelry” that I wanted, not “castings,” I made up my mind to send to New York for a casting and let me tell you that this one was fine.  It seems to me that the Chicago foundrymen do not use French sand or know how to dry their castings.  There was sure some expense

and delay to get this from New York, but I had worked on castings from the same foundry before and knew what to expect.  After having this casting chased, I had the Imperial Brass Foundry of this city make up fifty castings.  They gave me a fine job and when the convention is here, I will be able to show quite a few samples, which I trust will interest the members at large.

As II look back over the years that have gone, I recall many experiences in connection with my work, and the one that now seems most strange is the difficulty we all experienced, in trying to gain some real knowledge about our work.  We, as you know, did not have books, papers, etc., always on tap, and when I needed some information about a certain finish, I had to hunt up someone who would exchange some of his formulas for some that I might have; otherwise, you would have to pay dear for it.

As I remember, the only book then on plating was “Watts,” published in England, and to a kid whose head reached only a little higher than the tank, you can imagine that there were a good many things in that book that never touched me.

Some of us remember the little, red-covered book that the Zucker & Leavitt Co. handed out to the boys away back in the bicycle days - 1896, I think.  There wasn’t much to it, but it was a great help to me, and I am quite sure that every plater of that time found something in it that helped him over the hard places.

This was followed by a book of real value when Herbert J. Hawkins came out with the book called “Polishing and Plating of Metals,” and believe me, Brother Platers, it took the gentleman a long time to get that book up to its present standard.  Since then, we have become familiar with “Langbein’s,” “The Metal Industry,” “The Brass World” and other publications, through which we have learned much.

Sooner or later, we have a desire to see other cities, and I was no exception, so after having worked in several shops in Chicago, I found work in many other cities, and it was then that my real troubles began, and I had nowhere to look for help.  I remember in one shop we had some ball-bearing cups to plate.  These were blue steel, very highly tempered, and how to nickel plate them kept me guessing for some time.  All my other work came out fine, but as fast as I tackled the cups the nickel refused to stick.  I was several hundred miles from home and “up a tree” with a good chance of losing my job when one of our good friends selling plating supplies came along and with his help, we soon got those cups to take nickel as a duck takes to water.  All through my plating career I have found the salesmen my loyal friends - always ready to help me in every way possible - and I can assure you from my own experience that there’s lots of satisfaction when you are in some small town a long way from home to meet one of the boys and have the opportunity of talking over business - picking up always some new wrinkles that lead to better work.

Platers of today do not know how fortunate they are in having a Society such as ours to whom they can go for any needed information instead of trying to work it out of some plater, as we were formerly compelled to do.

Tonight, our dreams are realized in this, the first gathering in the history of the profession, when we as platers from different parts of the country can come together and discuss the problems that so vitally concern us, and I am sure when I say that we all are  - one for all and all for one.

*Read before the Second Annual Convention at Chicago, June 6, 1914.

Future Possibilities *

by H.H. Hawkins

To one who has been in touch with this industry as many years as have I and who has known something of the misgivings, not to say superstitions, to which many of our old-time platers were subject in regard to some cherished formula or process, this assembly is surely a revelation because the very air seems permeated with good fellowship and each individual member seems to be filled with an earnest desire to do his part to make this convention a marked success.  A few years back such a gathering would not even be thought of, much less be brought to a successful reality.

One of the most helpful and promising accomplishments of this educational Society is the breaking down and removal of all secrecy and prejudices with which many of the old-school platers have entangled their minds, with the idea that they were protecting their individual interests and knowledge.

Every man has a purpose in life and is for a purpose.  We fill our own individual nick or space, and not another’s.  Each man’s ingenuity and individuality is what shines forth in his work and upon these qualities, and these alone, depend his success, be it great or small.  These qualities are personal possessions and cannot be taken from us by another.

Now, if a mechanic or scientist shuts himself up in a cave away from the light of the world he becomes a mental cripple, and instead of making progress he will retrograde.  What we need is mental co-operation and association with other minds interested in the same things we are interested in; also minds which have mastered, in part at least, the science of chemistry and the science of electricity, because the art of electro-plating is a part of, and absolutely dependent upon, both electricity and chemistry for its very existence.  To me it is a remarkable thing that chemistry has been developed in so many different industries to such a high state of usefulness and efficiency.  Electricity also has made wonderful strides in finding new fields and new uses everywhere, while our own branch of these two wonderful sciences has made small progress compared with the others.  But since the birth of the A.E.S., much good has been accomplished, and while only the surface of the hidden treasure of knowledge has been touched pertaining to our art, we are in a fair way to gradually accomplish great things.

In every city where this educational society is established, we have willing instruction in both chemistry and electricity, and it behooves every man who expects to stay in the running to embrace each and every opportunity; to obtain the exact and scientific knowledge pertaining to his business.  He must know how to make and how to maintain his solutions and must know what a given result should be and why.  Platers have been doing a lot of guessing and some bluffing in times past, but this was not the fault of anyone in particular, but due rather to conditions, and this is the evil that this Society aims to correct and is correcting.

It is surprising how backward we are - some of us platers - when it comes to adopting new methods.  By new I do not mean experiments, but well defined and accepted practices such as the use of electro-cleaners, mechanical platers, voltmeters and ammeters, etc.  Every few days I run across someone who refuses to see the wisdom of using these (in this day and age) absolutely essential appliances.  Only a few days since I was asked to take back an ammeter where three months ago a new generator and other equipment was installed.  I installed the voltmeter when the plant went in, but because I did not install the ammeter in the circuit it was never put in and as they had got along without it the assumption was

that it was a useless luxury.  But as soon as these instruments are put into use, the plater finds out how important they are.  And from this time forward every plater in this society will find it not only important but absolutely necessary for his advancement to be fully equipped with all necessary instruments with which to make tests and to determine fact, because new improvements and methods are ever appearing and must ever continue to appear from the very nature of their inexhaustible source, and to keep in touch and be familiar with new developments he must be equipped with instruments which are recognized as standard. That is one of the changes that this movement is bringing about.

In ten years’ time or less I predict that this society will have grown so in usefulness and understanding that it will be considered a power for good in the field of scientific research.

If electro-chemical demonstrating apparatus is installed by the different branches and the members will attend with open minds and a desire to learn, teachers will be found who will unfold to them the whys and wherefores of the so-called secrets of plating as fast as they are able to assimilate the facts.  It is true that there have been many new ideas advanced and very many new time and labor-saving devices and compounds, so called, put upon the market, especially within the last few years.  They may be classified under three heads - good, bad and indifferent.  All the new things that can be classed under the first head, “good,” we want and will save.  The others are, and by right should be, short-lived and must go to the scrap heap.  He is a wise plater who can properly classify all the new get-rich-quick methods and means he is asked to try out.  Who is able to separate the wheat from the chaff?  But with the good work that will be done for him by this association it will be a very short time when every plater can have at least a good working knowledge of electro-chemistry and be perfectly competent to make his own analyses and demonstrations.  What we require is understanding, by which we can put our beliefs to the test.  Then, if found correct, they are no longer beliefs, but become positive knowledge.

There is but one truth of any problem. It is that fact we must keep in mind.  Instead of knowing the truth of many of our problems we have been guessing, trying to make three plus two equal four - as it were.  It can’t be done.  But how easy it is and how sure of the true result when we know two plus two equals four and understand the fundamental principle.

There is really nothing new, for all the so-called new discoveries, great and small, that have been made, the principle was and is always there.  So, the truth or principle is now for any new developments or unfoldments man may make.  These principles always have been, always will be.  They are eternal and it is in the province of man’s mind to unfold and develop them.  Knowledge is increasing in abundance as we learn to use it and make it our own.

Usually, the man who makes great claims to having superior knowledge has nothing in truth to back him up.  To illustrate: A few years ago, a manufacturer told me that he was having difficulty in getting enough work from the plating room to get out his orders and what he did was to cut through the work being copper plated and oxidized.  He asked me if I would go to the plating room and perhaps help the plater, who was a young man, to locate the difficulty.  He was running two batches of work per day - think of it - one in the morning and one in the afternoon.  The solution was simply rainwater, being almost free from cyanide and copper.  The work was supposed to be plating, but was covered with brown oxide, no gas being given off at the cathode.  He said, and I think correctly, that this was not the kind of copper solution for the kind of work at hand, but he wanted an acid or duplex copper.  I then asked him if he understood how to make and operate this solution, my intention being to assist him if he wished.  He said, “I have been at this business twelve years and know all there is to know about it.”  Some claim.

This young man put his sulphate copper in galvanized iron tubs and filled them with water, then went home for the night - you know the rest.  The next day they hired a plater.  Now if that young man had imbibed some of the spirit of friendship and helpfulness that pervades this gathering, he would have known that my intentions were good and not evil.  I have learned this - that when I am able to convey to anyone some really helpful information I invariably receive much more than I give as a return.

I have been plodding along at this business, in one capacity or another, for at least twelve years, and at this present moment as I stand here before these men, among whom are electricians, chemists, electro-chemists and platers who have both the scientific and practical knowledge of the plater’s art, I realize now more fully than ever before how few of these truths I have really mastered and how much is yet to be learned.

He must be a man of very limited understanding and knowledge indeed who would make the statement that he has exhausted all knowledge of any branch of electro-chemistry.  The science of electro-chemistry offers perpetual and everlasting challenge to you, and to me, to show the best that is in us.  No man since the beginning of the plating art has ever found the limitations of any theory or practice pertaining to or dealing with any of its many branches and in the very nature of things no man will discover the uttermost end of any of these possibilities.

It is to this Society that we now look for the unfoldment of these (to us) hidden truths and I firmly believe that it is not a distant day when the employers of the best paid and most competent platers will insist that they come recommended by the A.E.P.A.  When that happy day arrives, we will have outgrown the title platers and will be known as electro-chemists.

However, we cannot attain to this dignified position at will but must labor continually and persistently as we are being taught and led along the well-defined paths of our chosen profession.

If we will be conscientious and persistent in our efforts the standard of efficiency is bound to be raised until at no distant date we will be not platers merely, but members of a dignified profession.  To me this is the one great outstanding purpose of the A.E.P.A - to accomplish this result.  For this reason, I believe we - one and all - should deem it a special privilege to give to this movement both our financial and moral support - not from any commercial or selfish motive, but simply because it is in reality a great and worthy

educational movement.  It is hardly possible to overestimate the good this movement may accomplish.  We owe much to the men who were the instigators of this society for their untiring efforts in behalf of their fellow men who are making electro-plating their life work.  Much credit is due also to our trade papers, “The Metal

Industry” and “Brass World” for their efforts and helpful influence.  Here I wish to say that this society has lost a fund of scientific knowledge and a power for progress in the passing of the late Edwin Starr Sperry.  He seemed competent and capable of giving a concise and correct solution to any electro-chemical problem that might be put to him.  Such men as he, are an asset to any Educational Society.  I had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Sperry at a brass foundry convention in Detroit some years ago.  This is what he said: “Well, well!” he said, “you know I had pictured you as an old cadaverous looking fellow with a long white beard with one foot in the grave.  Can you imagine it?”

Whiskers have nothing in common with our profession.  I do remember though faintly so long ago that the memory of man runneth not to the contrary, when Mr. Starrett used to come to St. Louis, where I was then located, and bring his whiskers with him but they were not white - far from it - they were pink.  I suppose

I will have to pay for these remarks when Mr. Starrett gets me on the carpet next time.  Anyhow it is bully to be able to say it right out loud and know the boss can’t choke you off and then - I am going to get out of town tonight.

And now Gentlemen, in closing I wish to repeat a little verse which embraces and expresses fully my sentiment as to the welfare of our society and all its members.  This verse was written by a Quaker missionary named Stephen Grellet.  For many years it has adorned the walls of my home.  It was used, I think, at the last convention and perhaps we could not do better than to adopt it as our slogan.  It is as follows:

“I shall pass through this world but once.  Any good thing I can do, therefore, or any kindness I can show to any human being, let me do it now.  Let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again.”

* Read before the Second Annual Convention at Chicago, IIl., June 6, 1914.

Address to Bridgeport Branch

by Charles H. Proctor.

Mr. President, Members and Guests of the Bridgeport Branch of the American Electro-Platers’ Society:

It is with a feeling of elation that I am permitted to be present with you this evening and participate in this, your first get-together dinner, and extend to you my personal congratulations for the success that has attended your efforts in establishing here in this beautiful city of Bridgeport, the fourteenth branch of the America Electro-Platers’ Society in the United States and Canada.  The reason of this elation is due to the fact that the state of Connecticut is no doubt the mother of the vast industry of electro-plating and its allied

industries of which this city is a notable part, not only for this reason but within a short distance of this city - I refer to Ansonia where I first obtained what knowledge I possess of the art of electro-plating.  At this time, I desire to pay a tribute to one man whom many present this evening probably were personally acquainted

with, who a few years ago completed life’s circuit and the contact with human energy was broken and he passed into that great unknown.  To this man I owe much and perhaps many of you do too.  He was one of the brightest stars in the plating world and my personal contact with him and the knowledge I was able to absorb from him was no doubt instrumental in an indirect way to the conception in after years, of the American Electro-Platers’ Society and the pleasure of being present with you this evening to celebrate your admission into that galaxy of sister branches of the Society.

I refer to Edward A. Barnard, the father of your present secretary, Nelson A. Barnard.  It is with this mark of respect in public utterance that I pay to him a well-earned tribute not only as a good man but as a master of his chosen vocation in the art of electro-deposition of metals in this state.  I am sure that your future developments will be watched by me with keen interest because in this state of yours you have so many notable members of the craft who are well versed in the art.  They can and will, I have no doubt, add much to our common stock of knowledge that will not only give the Bridgeport branch considerable prestige, but will prove a valuable asset to them as officers of the supreme body in the near future.

The art of plating, within the memory of many of the older members of the craft present here this evening, has developed wonderfully.  To glance back a quarter of a century to the methods in vogue at that time; to realize the trouble that frequently occurred from the change of polarity of the dynamo, of the “rule of thumb”

methods in current regulation, to labor under unknown conditions, no voltmeter, no ammeter, but only that self-asserted will that made us master of the situation and brought us to where we stand today, still master of the present and future of the art.

To be a member of the American Electro-Platers’ Society adds dignity to your profession, it will raise the standard of its members, it will gain recognition for you and place your profession upon the plane of elevation to which it rightfully belongs.  We have much yet to accomplish, and we realize that rapid advance and development in the electrical and mechanical manipulation have been made within a decade or more, but we must look to the future.  Your solutions require the same concerted effort and there is much yet to be accomplished.  We are coming to an era when we shall use only the active principles of electro-plating; we shall dissect our solutions and discard every unnecessary ingredient, unless it has some intrinsic value in the production of the deposit.  We must realize, for the sake of economy, that there is only one material we take from a solution, that is the metal that has any intrinsic value that gives us a profit.

The point is to get that metal into the solution and take it out as cheaply as possible.  The cheaper you can do this and the more you can economize in discarding inert material that is not an active principle in the production of the metal from the solution, the more value you will be to your employer and the more value you will be as a member of the American Electro-Platers’ Society.

I look to Bridgeport Branch and the members of the fraternity in this old Nutmeg State to prove that my confidence in the future development of the art in your hands will reach an evolutionary stage and as I look back in after years to this evening, and the many friends I have met, with the same ambitions and hope for the future of the society, the pleasure will be mine.  I thank you.

* Address before Bridgeport Branch, April 25, 1914.

What The Branches Are Doing

Note to the Secretaries - AIl correspondence for this department must be in the hands of the editor by the 15th of each month.

Supreme Society

Meets first week in June, 1915, at Dayton, Ohio.  Secretary, Walter Fraine, 507 Grand Avenue, Dayton, Ohio.

New York

Meets fourth Friday of each month at 309 West 23rd Street, New York City, 8 PM, Secretary, Joseph Minges, 148 Schenck Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y.

The following delegates represented the New York Branch at the National Convention at Chicago: John E. Sterling, George B. Hogaboom, Thos. B. Haddow.

Officers elected for the ensuing year are as follows:

President                                                          Thos. B. Haddow, re-elected

Vice-President                                                   H.E. Bernard

Secretary                                                          Joseph Minges, re-elected

Sergeant-at-Arms                                              A. Leimbacher

Asst. Sergeant-at-Arms                                      W.R. Shanks

Librarian                                                           Wm. Fischer

Board of Managers: J.A. Staub, F.P. Davis, J.A. Stremel, Chas. H. Proctor, Wm. Schneider.

Philadelphia

Meets first Friday of each month in the Harrison Laboratory Building, University of Penna., 34th and Spruce Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.  Secretary, Philip Uhl, 2432 North Twenty-ninth Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

The regular monthly meeting was held June 5th, with Vice-President Moore presiding.

A vote of thanks was tendered to the Brass World for sending this branch a copy of their magazine each month.

Dr. H.S. Lukens, Dr. of Electro-Chemistry of the University of Penna., gave an instructive talk on the electrical method of determining of free acid in solutions.  He also gave a blackboard illustration and practical demonstration of this method.  After the lecture, Dr. Lukens answered questions asked by the members.

Provost Smith, of the University of Penna, and who is an honorary member of this society, was awarded the Elliott Cresson medal for eminence in the field of science, by the Franklin Institute.  Dr. Smith is the first Philadelphian upon whom this medal, which is the highest honor conferred by the Institute, has been bestowed.

Chicago

Meets fourth Saturday of each month, 8 PM, Western Building, Randolph Street and Michigan Avenue. Secretary, pro tem., H.E. Willmore, 5911 South Boulevard, Chicago, IIl.

Owing to the inability on account of illness, of J. F. Carr to serve as Secretary, H. E. Willmore was appointed Secretary pro tem.

The following communication has been received by the Secretary and signed E.L.:

Our Convention brought out quite a few things humorous in their nature, and with a spirit of good fellowship which perhaps will never be printed, and their effect will be lost to those who were not present  and then again some of the incidents may travel verbally and the effect be universal.

In acknowledging his introduction by Mr. O.E. Servis wherein the latter had made reference to him as a “war horse”, our worthy President, Mr. Hansjosten, remarked that he was glad Mr. Servis had not said anything about the “Dog” and quite naturally some may wonder about the dog, and how it could have any bearing upon the situation.

The first record we have of Queenie shows her tied to the leg of a desk in the office of the Superintendent, where our President is employed, looking forlorn and forsaken.  “History” records a conversation between our President and the Superintendent relative to the origin of the poor animal, and also their failure to fathom the past; but our noble President, whose heart is always bursting with the humanitarian spirit, requested that Queenie be turned over to him, and Queenie’s animal instinct was in evidence when she looked up appealingly at her hero, and the deed was done.

We next learn of Queenie during the time of the banquet of the St. Louis Branch, where she received considerable mention, and her new home was soon decorated with numerous bones, all highly polished, but not plated, and entwined with beautiful baby ribbons in all colors, these gifts being presented by a number of the “Scouts” and good-fellows who attended the above mentioned event.

Her benefactor being desirous for “class”, claims her to be a Collie, but the color and shagginess of the hair lend an air of mystery to the species which has not yet been solved.

Notwithstanding the vigilance of the master and benefactor, it seems she has strayed from the straight and narrow path, and owing to this, ambitions have been shattered, both financially and otherwise; but to note her devotion to the admixture of mongrels in the set, is to appreciate her noble nature.  She is now reigning over her flock on the farm just outside of Kokomo, Ind., trying to redeem herself in the estimation of her benefactor, and knowing his forgiving spirit as we do, we are sure she will soon be re-crowned Queen of all she surveys.

Dayton

Meets first and third Wednesday of each month at the Y.M.C.A., Dayton, Ohio.  Secretary, Alphonz Lamoureux, 500 East First Street, Dayton, Ohio.

On June 3, 1914, the officers and members of Dayton Branch had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Hogaboom, Supreme President.  The President, with Mr. F. P. Davis, of the Celluloid Zapon Co., and Mr. Andrews, Electrical Engineer of the American Hardware Corporation, were on their way to Chicago to attend the Society’s Second Annual Convention.

Mr. Fraine, President of the Dayton Branch, introduced Mr. Hogaboom, who responded with a very interesting talk.

He gave a brief history of the Society from its organization to the present time, noting its progress and also its great possibilities, as the plating game, he said, was only in its infancy.  One of the many interesting facts made clear was that the modern plater is not a man of strong physique only, but one who had the power to think and act.  For instance, anyone could compound a formula but the present day plater must experiment along all practical lines in order to bring about the necessary results of promoting the plating art.

Mr. Andrews spoke of the close relationship between the plater and the Electro-Chemist and of this close relationship being understood by the manufacturer, in order to bring about the expected results and more efficient labor.

Mr. Davis spoke briefly of the plating art, its wonderful progress and of its possibilities, which can only be reached through the labor and research work of such an educational society as The American Electro-Platers’ Society.

This meeting was one of the most interesting we have ever held.  We hope to have these men with us again in the near future when they may be able to give us more of their time.

Newark

Meets first and third Friday of each month, 8 PM, 833 Broad Street, Newark, N. J.  Secretary, Chas. A. Stiehle, 46 West Madison Avenue, Irvington, N. J.

Detroit

Meets first and third Friday of each month at Burns’ Hotel.  Secretary, George J. Kutzen.

Toronto

Meets fourth Thursday of each month at Occidental Hall, Bathurst and Queen Streets.  Secretary, Ernest Coles, 15 Laurier Avenue, Toronto, Ont. Canada.

The regular meeting was held Thursday, May 28th, with President W. S. Barrows in the chair, and a splendid attendance.

After the regular routine business had been transacted the election of officers was held.  The following officers were elected for the term 1914-1915:

President                                                          John Magill

Vice-President                                                   W.J. Salmon     

Secretary                                                          Ernest Coles

Treasurer                                                          Walter S. Barrows

Sergeant-at-Arms                                              Emil Nordblom

Librarian                                                           James Humphrey

Board of Managers - W. W. Wells, Jr., Robt. Dermody, Wm. McCann.

Mr. A. E. Shepherd, Librarian of Detroit Branch, was a visitor to our meeting and spoke of the good work Detroit Branch was doing.

Rochester

Meets second and fourth Wednesday of each month at University of Rochester.  Secretary, Edwin S. Crowley, Jr., 868 South Goodman Street, Rochester, N. Y.

Indianapolis

Meets twice each month on Friday evenings.  Secretary, pro tem, J.C. Davenport, 349 Massachusetts Avenue, Indianapolis, Ind.

St. Louis

Meets fourth Saturday of each month at Public Library Assembly Rooms.  Secretary, H.H. Williams, 2134 Nebraska Avenue, St. Louis, Mo.

Cincinnati

Meets once each month at Dennison Hotel, Cincinnati, Ohio.  Secretary, F.H. Normand.

Bridgeport

Secretary, Nelson A. Barnard, 858 Howard Avenue, Bridgeport, Conn.

Buffalo

Meets first Saturday of each month at the University of Buffalo, 8 PM  Secretary, F.C. Mesle, 1560 Willow Avenue, Niagara Falls, N.Y.

Milwaukee

Meets second Wednesday of each month at Marquette University.  Secretary, P.J. Sheehan, 922 Vliet Street, Milwaukee, Wis.

Elected to Membership

Rocco M. Vinnello (Active).

Ruhlman Hess (Active).

Robert G. Curtis (Active).

Newton E. Dabolt ( Associate).

Applications for Membership

Dayton -  F.G. Cyrex                                          Hanson & Van Winkle Co., Chicago, III.

Cincinnati - William Eckels                                  1829 Waker Street, Cincinnati, Ohio

Change of Address

Robert Dermody                                                981 Gerrart Street, East, Toronto, Canada

John Young                                                       467 St. Clareus Avenue, Toronto, Canada

Martin Smith                                                      1415 North Howard Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Julius Neu                                                         427 Baily Street, Camden, N. J.